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STUDIES  IN 

PEDAGOGY. 


x/ 1  Ai  ill  n  UKJe  AiJ  otniJuJ 


THOMAS  J.  MORGAN,  A.M.,  D.D. 

Principal  of  the  Rhode  Islatzd  State  Normal  School;  author  of 
'^Educational  Mosaics." 


What  better,  what  greater  service  can  we  of  to-da'S 
render  the  republic  than  to  instruct  and  train  the 
YOUNG? —  Cicero. 


BOSTON  : 

SILVER,  BURDETT  &   COMPANY, 

i8q2, 


Copyright,  1888, 
By  Silver,  Burdett  &  Co. 


Presswork  by  Berwick  &  Smith,  Boston,  Mass. 


\  0  M- 


TO 

THE   MANY   WHO   HAVE   BEEN   MY  PUPILS 

IN   THE 

NORMAL   SCHOOLS  AT   PERU,  NEBRASKA;    POTSDAM,  NEW  YORK; 

PROVIDENCE,    RHODE   ISLAND, 

THIS   VOLUME 

IS 

AFFECTIONATELY    DEDICATED. 


Man,  it  is  within  yourself,  it  is  in  the  inner  sense  of  your  power, 
that  resides  nature's  instrument  for  your  development. 

Pestalozzi. 

The  price  of  retaining  what  we  know  is  always  to  seek  to  know 
more.  We  preserve  our  learning  and  mental  power  only  by  increasing 
them.  Henry  Darling. 

In  fact,  what  we  learn  at  school  and  in  college  is  but  the  founda- 
tion of  the  great  work  of  self-instruction  and  mutual  instruction  with 
which  the  real  education  of  life  begins  when  what  is  commonly  called 
the  education  is  finished.  Edward  Everett, 

Patience,  dihgence,  quiet,  and  unfatigued  perseverance,  industry, 
regularity,  and  economy  of  time,  as  these  are  the  dispositions  I  would 
labor  to  excite,  so  these  are  the  qualities  I  would  warmly  commend. 

Hannah  More. 

Whatever  I  have  tried  to  do  in  life,  I  have  tried  with  all  my  heart 
to  do  well.  Charles  Dickens. 


PREFACE. 


Plato  has  said  that  "man  cannot  propose  a  higher  and 
holier  object  for  his  study  than  education  and  all  that  pertains 
to  education."  One  of  the  most  fascinating  phases  of  the 
subject  is  that  which  relates  to  the  work  of  teaching.  Nothing 
so  prevents  monotony  and  drudgery  in  the  schoolroom  as  a  lively 
interest,  on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  in  the  philosophy  of  his 
work. 

One  of  the  interesting  signs  of  the  times  is  the  rapid  increase 
in  our  country  of  pedagogical  literature,  either  as  translations 
from  foreign  languages,  or  as  original  productions  of  American 
authors.  This  indicates  a  growing  popular  interest  in  the  great 
question  of  the  proper  education  of  American  youth. 

This  volume  is  the  outgrowth  of  a  good  many  years  of 
^(^  observation,  reading,  thinking,  and  experience,  and  the  author 
■^  hopes  that,  while  consisting  of  mere  "studies,"  it  may  yet  be 
^  considered  as  at  least  an  earnest  effort  to  contribute  toward  the 
^  promotion  of  higher  ideals  of  education  and  better  methods  of 
teachino;. 

The  author  acknowledges  his  indebtedness  to  the  writings  of 
Rousseau,  Comenius,  Compayr^,  Fitch,  Tate,  Jacob  Abbott, 
Page,  Joseph  Payne,  Rosenkranz,  Frocbel,  W.  T.  Harris,  and 
many  others.  He  takes  especial  pleasure  in  acknowledging  his 
obligations  to  two  former  teachers,  E.  G.  Robinson,  d.d., 
LL.D.,  now  president  of  Brown  University,  and  M.  B.  Ander- 
son, LL.D.,  president  of  the  University  of  Rochester.  He 
acknowledges  also  the  courtesy  of  Dr.  William  A.  Mowry, 
editor  of  "  Education,"  for  the  privilege  of  using  certain  matter 
here  which  was  formerly  prepared  for  his  magazine. 


6  PREFACE. 

He  was  glad  to  find  in  Compayr^'s  Lectures  on  Pedagogy, 
translated  by  Professor  W.  H.  Payne,  a  plan  of  treatment  similar 
to  the  one  that  he  had  already  adopted. 

He  takes  this  occasion  to  express  his  appreciation  of  the 
kind  reception  accorded  by  the  critics  and  the  public  generally 
to  his  first  volume,  Educational  Mosaics. 

/     / 

PxoviDENCE,  Rhode  Island, 
March,  1889. 


TABLE  OF   CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

I.  —  Education 9 

II.  —  Training 19 

III. — Training  the  Senses 41 

IV.  —  Training  the  Imagination 51 

V. — Training  to  Think 63     ' 

VI.  —  Training  the  Sensibilities ^^ 

VII.  —  Training  in  Language 95 

VIII.  —  Training  the  Will iii 

IX.  —  Training  to  Learn 125 

X.  —  Training  in  Music 145 

XI.  —  Training  to  Use  Books 157 

XII.  —  Training  for  Freedom       167 

XIII.  —  Methodology 179 

XIV. — The  Man  and  his  Method 191 

XV.  —  Method  in  Questioning 199  L^' 

XVI.  —  Method  of  Teaching  Arithmetic       .     .     .  215 

XVII.  —  Examinations 239 

XVIII.  —  The  Ideal  Schoolmaster       253 


8  CONTENTS. 


PAGE 


XIX.  —  The  True  Function  of  a  Normal  School    .  277 

XX.  — Advice  to  Young  Teachers 311 

1.  The  Teacher's  Calling 313 

2.  The  Significance  of  Difficulties     .     .  319 

3.  Independent  Thinking 321 

4.  Culture,  Citizenship,  Character      .     .  326 

5.  The  Work  of  the  Primary  Teacher    .  331 

6.  The  Teacher's  Growth 334 

7.  Training  for  Citizenship 338 

8.  A  Professional  Spirit 341 

9.  Character  Building 343 

10.  A  Plea  for  the  Public  Schools  .     .     .  348 


^ 


I. 

EDUCATION. 


The  attainment  of  perfect  manhood  as  the  actualization  of  the 
freedom  essential  to  mind  constitutes  the  nature  of  education  in 
general.  ^  '  J.  K.  F.  Rosenkranz. 


Education  is  the  process  of  making  individual  men  participators 
in  the  best  attainments  of  the  human  mind  in  general;  namely,  in 
that  which  is  most  rational,  true,  beautiful,  and  good. 

William  Whewell. 


The  object  of  the  science  of  education  is  to  render  the  mind  the 
fittest  possible  instrument  for  discerning,  applying,  or  obeying  the 
laws  under  which  God  has  placed  the  universe. 

Francis  Wayland. 


The   true   end   of  education  is  to  unfold  and  direct  aright   our 

whole  nature.     Its  office  is  to  call  forth  powers  of  every  kind  —  power 

of  thought,  affection,  will,  and  outward  action;    power  to  observe,  to 

reason,  to  judge,  to  contrive;    power  to  adopt  good  ends  firmly,  and  to 

pursue  them  effectively;  power  to  govern  ourselves,  and  to  influence 

others;   power  to  gain  and  to  spread  happiness. 

W.  E.  Channing. 


Studies  in  Pedagogy. 


I. 

EDUCATION. 

The  aim  of  education  is  to  give  to  the  individual  all  the  perfection 
of  which  he  is  susceptible.  —  Immanuel  Kant. 

In  the  most  general  sense  education  is  that  which 
marks  the  difference  between  what  a  child  is  by 
nature  at  birth  and  that  which  he  becomes  by 
growth,  training,  and  experience.  In  this  sense  the 
vital  process  of  evolution  by  which  the  germinal 
power  —  body,  mind,  will  —  becomes  unfolded  and 
brought  to  maturity  is  a  part  of  education.  In  this 
sense  the  word  embraces  as  one  of  the  greatest 
forces  of  education,  Nature,  including  soil,  climate, 
scenery,  etc.  The  entire  environment,  nature,  home, 
society,  etc.  etc.,  is  one  vast  educational  agency. 
The  influence  exerted  upon  the  child  by  these  varied 
and  diverse  forces  are  so  intimately  blended  with  the 
conscious  efforts  of  teachers  to  train  and  instruct 
him,  that  it  is  impossible  to  separate  them  except  in 
thought.  The  manner  of  the  teacher  is  as  potent 
with  his  pupils  as  his  word,  and  his  example  out- 
weighs his  precepts. 

II 


12  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

Ordinarily,  however,  we  mean  by  education  the 
effect  produced  upon  the  young  mind  by  those  who 
purposely  seek  to  influence  him.  Especially,  and  in 
a  still  narrower  sense,  education  is  restricted  to  the 
direct  influence  of  school-teachers  and  schools. 

We  sometimes  say  of  a  man  who  is  not  a  school- 
man that  he  is  uneducated,  or,  at  least,  self-educated. 
But  this  is  unphilosophical.  No  man  who  has 
acquired  knowledge  and  strength  or  skill  is  unedu- 
cated ;  and  every  man  who  has  either  knowledge, 
skill,  or  power  is  in  a  very  real  sense  self-educated, 
however  much  help  he  may  have  received  from 
others.  This  will  be  made  more  evident  by  what 
follows. 

I.  Education  implies  knowledge.  An  educated 
man  is  a  man  who  knows.  Knowledge  is  either  a 
means  to  an  end,  or  an  end  in  itself.  Very  many 
facts  involved  in  trades,  and  even  in  the  learned 
professions,  are  acquired,  not  for  their  own  sake,  but 
for  the  sake  of  the  use  that  the  learner  can  make  of 
them.  On  the  other  hand  knowledge  may  be  acquired 
simply  for  the  sake  of  knowing  it.  The  man  is  more 
highly  educated  who  loves  truth  for  its  own  sake, 
studies  simply  for  the  sake  of  knowing,  seeks  rather 
to  comprehend  knowledge  as  science  than  as  means 
to  some  practical  end.  Practical  education,  industrial 
education,  must  ever  be  regarded  as  lower  than  a 
liberal  training  or  philosophical  culture.  It  can 
make  no  difference  in  what  way  knowledge  is 
acquired,  whether  from  consciousness,  reflection, 
observation,  books,  or  teachers,  provided  onlv  that 


EDUCATION.  13 

one  be  certain  that  he  has  it.  To  know  a  thing  is  to 
be  certain  of  it.  The  Indian,  who  by  personal  observa- 
tion has  acquainted  himself  with  the  forms,  habitats, 
and  habits  of  wild  animals  about  him,  so  that  he 
knows  them,  is  so  far  an  educated  man.  The  black- 
smith, who  by  experiment  and  imitation  has  learned 
how  to  heat  iron,  cut,  bend,  and  shape  it  into  a  horse- 
shoe, is  to  that  extent  educated.  The  child  that  has 
committed  to  memory  the  multiplication  table  or  the 
Ten  Commandments  with  their  meaning  has  so  much 
knowledge  —  education. 

The  practical  value  of  knowledge  depends  neces- 
sarily upon  circumstances.  The  depth  of  the  harbor 
at  Glasgow  or  the  location  of  an  island  in  the  Pacific 
may  be,  and  probably  will  be  in  most  cases,  utterly 
without  practical  value  to  the  student  of  geography 
unless  he  should  some  day  be  a  pilot  or  a  sea-captain. 
A  knowledge  of  the  writings  of  Confucius  is  to  an 
American  youth  barren  of  practical  utility,  while  to 
a  young  Chinaman  it  may  be  the  one  thing  upon 
which  hinges  his  appointment  to  office  and  his 
success  in  life.  Practical  education  may  be  said  to 
consist  in  an  accumulation  of  those  facts  which  one 
is  most  likely  to  need  in  the  daily  duties  of  life. 
There  are  some  facts  of  practical  use  to  everybody, 
such  as  those  pertaining  to  climate,  health,  domestic 
economy,  social  customs,  common  forms  of  business, 
etc.  The  rudiments  of  reading,  writing,  spelling, 
language,  geography,  arithmetic,  physiology,  civics, 
and  history  enter  so  largely  into  the  common  inter- 
course and  occupations  of  everyday  life  that  a  man 


14  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

living  in  the  midst  of  society  who  is  ignorant  of 
these  can  hardly  be  said  to  be  an  educated  man, 
whatever  his  attainments  in  other  directions.  In 
addition  to  this  general  knowledge  the  farmer  needs 
to  know  facts  about  farming,  the  tailor  about  tailoring, 
the  sailor  about  navigation,  and  the  lawyer  about  law 
and  codes  of  procedure. 

For  purposes  of  general  education  one  should  have 
an  acquaintance  with  those  branches  of  knowledge 
which  are  of  most  general  interest,  which  give  to  one 
the  highest  topics  of  thought.  The  chief  facts  and 
general  principles  of  art,  literature,  science,  politics, 
and  religion  make  up  a  body  of  knowledge  that  is 
essential  to  a  liberal  education. 

Exhaustive  knowledge  in  any  department  of  human 
investigation  is  scarcely  attainable  by  the  specialist 
even,  and  is  utterly  beyond  the  reach  of  the  many, 
while  cyclopaedic  knowledge  is  but  the  dream  of  an 
enthusiast. 

2.   Education  involves  mental  power. 

The  soul  at  birth  contains  certain  great  possibilities, 
latent  forces,  which,  by  exercise,  experience,  culture, 
are  to  be  educated,  drawn  out.  Education  is  the 
evolution  of  the  hidden  germ,  the  unfolding  of  latent 
power,  the  calling  into  active  exercise  of  the  capacity 
to  feel,  know,  reason,  and  act.  It  is  putting  the 
myriad-sided  soul  into  contact  with  the  myriad-sided 
universe,  so  as  to  bring  it  to  self-consciousness.  It 
is  the  investment  of  the  soul  with  the  vast  realm  of 
thought,  feeling,  action,  power,  authority,  dignity,  and 
enjoyment,  to  which  it  is  rightful  heir.     Man  is  GodV 


EDUCATION. 


15 


image,  gifted  with  powers  and  prerogatives  second 
only  to  his  own.  Education  is  that  process  by  which 
God  actualizes  in  the  soul  the  lofty  conceptions 
embodied  in  his  thought  of  man :  the  liberation  from 
the  crude,  rough-hewn  marble  of  the  imprisoned 
angel:  the  elaboration  into  form  and  imperishable  color 
of  the  rude  sketch  on  the  canvas  :  the  condensation 
of  mist,  cloud,  and  rain  into  one  vast  ocean,  whose 
mighty  currents  thrill  at  the  touch  of  his  fingers 
with  deep  resounding  roar,  which  is  joyous  with  his 
praises,  and  from  whose  surface,  in  sunshine  and  in 
storm,  is  reflected  the  glory  of  his  own  countenance. 
The  uneducated,  undeveloped  soul  is  little  removed 
from  the  clod,  scarcely  better  than  the  brute,  merely 
a  foreshadowing,  a  dim,  vague  prophecy  of  itself  as 
matured.  Helpless,  ignorant,  unconscious,  it  is  an 
object  of  pity.  As  an  untutored  savage,  delighting 
in  the  low  pleasures  of  mere  animal  existence, 
ignorant  of  fire  and  tools,  without  means  of  com- 
munication beyond  a  few  signs  and  a  limited  jargon, 
with  neither  literature,  philosophy,  nor  religion  ; 
homeless  and  Godless,  the  sport  of  the  elements, 
and  the  victim  of  disease  ;  naked,  filthy,  lazy,  cruel, 
and  bloodthirsty,  he  sinks  below  pity  to  become  an 
object  of  abhorrence  and  contempt. 

The  man  who  can  use  his  faculties  in  acquiring 
knowledge,  in  thinking  and  in  expressing  his  thought, 
is  so  far  an  educated  man.  Facility  in  the  use  of 
mental  powers,  accuracy  in  observing,  tenacity  of 
memory,  correctness  of  judgment  come  from  prac- 
tice.    Every  one  must  learn  to  employ  his  powers 


1 6  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

aright.  This  is  education.  Abraham  Lincoln,  in 
the  struggle  for  existence  during  his  frontier  life, 
in  the  sharp  conflict  with  rivals  and  opponents  in 
political  and  legal  contests,  and  in  his  study  of  Euclid, 
learned  to  think  and  to  clothe  his  thought  in  forcible 
English.  This  education  fitted  him  to  become  the 
nation's  leader  in  the  hour  of  its  great  peril. 

The  student  engaged  in  solving  problems,  analyzing 
sentences,  investigating  phenomena,  writing  essays, 
learns  to  use  his  mental  powers,  and  so  is  educated. 

The  mother,  busied  in  the  practical  duties  of  the 
home,  in  the  management  of,  and  providing  for,  her 
household,  learns  to  use  her  mental  powers.  She 
observes,  reflects,  remembers,  imagines,  reasons, 
talks,  and  argues,  and  thus  calls  into  exercise,  to  a 
limited  degree  perhaps,  but  really,  all  her  faculties, 
and  so  acquires  that  power  of  using  her  mental 
endowments  which  is  of  the  very  essence  of  edu- 
cation. 

The  pupil  that  in  school  is  content  with  memoriz- 
ing facts,  dates,  definitions,  rules,  principles,  which 
he  takes  on  authority  without  using  any  power  but 
memory,  may  be  educated  in  the  sense  of  having,  so 
to  speak,  a  knowledge  of  what  he  has  learned,  or 
perhaps  of  having  a  trained  memory,  but  he  is  not 
educated  in  the  higher  sense  of  having  a  trained 
mind.  His  power  to  observe,  to  think,  and  to  reason 
is  not  necessarily  called  into  action. 

Education  does  not  create  :  it  can  only  unfold  or 
draw  out.  It  evolves  what  is  involved,  by  the  Creator. 
It  may  increase  the  efficiency  of  the  native  endow- 
ments, but  it  does  not  add  to  their  number. 


EDUCATION.  17 

The  possibility  of  the  development  of  the  faculties 
by  education  is  limited.  Education  is  not  omnipo- 
tent. The  differences  among  men  are  not  simply 
differences  of  culture.  They  are  inherited  differ- 
ences, and  cannot  be  effaced  by  any  system  of  train- 
ing any  more  than  a  pear-tree  can  be  converted  into 
a  grapevine  by  cultivation. 

3.  Education  involves  the  proper  use  of  the 
sensibilities  and  conscience.  The  power  to  feel  is  as 
much  an  original  endowment  as  the  power  to  know, 
and  is  quite  as  susceptible  to  education.  The  heart 
is  bigger  than  the  head  and  plays  a  larger  part  in 
life's  drama.  No  education  is  complete  that  fails  to 
train  the  moral  nature. 

Men  differ  widely  in  the  range  of  their  sympathies. 
One  is  interested  in  the  welfare  of  himself  alone, 
another  embraces  in  the  scope  of  his  interest  only 
his  family,  kindred,  and  neighbors,  while  still  another 
thinks  nothing  foreign  to  himself  that  belongs  to 
humanity. 

The  range  of  enjoyment  varies  greatly  with  differ- 
ent individuals  and  marks  a  difference  in  the 
degree  of  their  culture.  The  character  of  one's 
education  has  very  much  to  do  with  deciding 
whether  he  shall  find  his  pleasures  on  the  low 
plane  of  the  senses  or  on  the  higher  levels  of 
intellectual  and  spiritual  enjoyment.  The  variety 
and  intensity  of  his  pleasures  depends  also  upon 
his  culture. 

4.  Education  implies  a  firm  will.  In  nothing  is 
the  difference    in  education   shown   more  fully  and 


I  8  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

impressively  than  in  the  state  of  the  will.  The 
untrained  will  is  fitful,  unsteady,  unreliable  Proper 
training  gives  fixedness  of  purpose,  loftiness  of  aim, 
purity  of  motives,  patience,  fortitude,  firmness,  and 
sustained  power. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  education  as  administered 
by  the  wise  teacher  seeks  to  secure  physical  health, 
mental  activity,  and  moral  soundness.  Sana  mens  in 
sano  corpore.  It  seeks  both  to  form  the  mind  and  to 
inform  it.  It  aims  to  secure  complete  manhood  and 
womanhood  ;  to  fit  men  and  women  for  the  perform- 
ance of  life's  duties,  high  and  lowly ;  to  promote  at 
once  usefulness  and  happiness.  It  strives  to  develop 
self-control ;  to  aid  the  human  being  to  adjust  himself 
wisely  to  his  environment  that  he  may  obey  nature 
and  control  it  ;  benefit  society  and  enjoy  it ;  serve 
the  state  and  reap  its  privileges. 

To  be  an  educated  man  in  the  highest  sense  is  to 
be  a  complete  man  —  strong,  active,  intelligent,  wise, 
good,  useful,  and  happy. 


TRAININa 


A  WELL-MADE  head  is  better  than  a  head  well  filled. 

Michel  Montaigne. 


The  primary  principle  of  education  is  the  determination  of  the 

pupil  to  self-activity. 

Sir  Willlam  Hamilton. 


The  sciences   should   be   employed   only   as   an  instrument   for 

perfecting  the  reason. 

Nicole. 


What  a  man  has  learnt  is  of  importance,  but  what  he  is,  what  he 
can  do,  what  he  will  become,  are  more  significant  things. 

Arthur  Helps. 


Unfortunately  education  amongst  us  at  present   consists  too 

much  in  telling,  not  in  training. 

Horace  Mann. 


II. 

TRAINING   AS    AN   ELEMENT   IN 
EDUCATION. 

We  take  education  as  aiming  at  the  formation  of  faculty.  —  SuLLY. 

He  who  would  gain  a  correct  idea  of  the  magnifi- 
cent Mount  Ranier  must  view  it  from  many  points. 
When  it  first  bursts  upon  his  enraptured  vision,  as 
he  approaches  from  the  south,  it  seems  like  a  mighty 
king,  surrounded  by  his  courtiers  and  glittering  body- 
guard. To  one  who  stands  upon  the  deck  of  the 
steamer  in  the  harbor  at  Tacoma,  it  looks  like  a  soli- 
tary pyramid,  majestic,  magnificent,  rising  directly 
out  of  the  deep  waters  of  that  wonderful  inland  sea 
—  Pug«t  Sound.  When  the  spectator  has  moved  far 
down  the  sound,  and  looks  at  it  from  a  hundred  miles 
away,  the  bold  mountain,  now  little  more  than  a  mass 
of  snow,  flashes  in  the  sunlight,  the  same,  yet  how 
different !  While  he,  who  approaches  its  base,  is 
charmed  and  terrified  by  turns,  as  it  allures  him 
by  its  lofty  summits,  or  hinders  him  by  its  mighty 
glaciers.  With  each  passing  season,  each  changing 
day  of  storm  or  sunshine,  each  varying  hour  of 
darkness,  twilight,  dawn,  or  high  noon,  it  presents  a 
new  aspect  and  awakens  new  emotions.  One  must 
"summer  and  winter"  in  its  grand  presence  to  be 
able  to  say  "  I  know  and  love  it." 

21 


2  2  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

So  does  one  need  to  study  the  work  of  the  teacher 
in  its  varying  phases  in  order  to  understand  truly  its 
many-sidedness,  and  full  significance.  There  is  noth- 
ing in  nature  so  grand,  so  beautiful,  so  full  of  absorb- 
ing interest  to  an  appreciative  observer,  as  is  found 
in  the  moral  world,  in  the  sublime  work  of  educating 
an  immortal  soul. 

It  is  the  purpose  here  to  consider  not  the  teacher's 
work  as  a  whole,  but  only  one  phase  of  it,  that  which 
may  be  called  training :  to  explain  what  is  meant  by 
training,  show  its  great  importance,  and  to  indicate 
some  of  its  hindrances  and  limitations. 

Training  is  causing  to  act,  drilling.  It  means 
to  govern,  lead,  compel.  Training,  as  a  process  in 
education,  signifies  such  a  control  exercised  by  the 
teacher  over  the  pupil  as  will  lead  him  to  so  use  his 
faculties  as  to  secure  their  completest  development. 
Training  has  for  its  immediate  end  the  evolution  of 
power.  As  treated  here,  it  means  the  unfolding  of 
all  the  faculties  of  the  human  being.  The  great 
mental  endowments  may  be  grouped  under  five  heads, 
those  of  acquiring,  understanding,  reproducing,  using, 
and  expressing  knowledge.  We  acquire  knowledge 
by  means  of  observation,  intuition,  reflection,  and 
testimony.  The  child  has  been  trained  when  he  has 
been  led  through  such  exercises  that  he  can  acquire 
accurate  and  comprehensive  knowledge  with  ease  and 
facility.  The  infant  and  the  untutored  savage  have 
the  same  faculties  and  the  same  sources  of  knowledge 
that  arc  possessed  by  an  Agassiz  or  a  Milton.  The 
babe  has  no  knowledge  and  little  ability  to  acquire 


TRAINING  IN  EDUCATION.  23 

it.  The  savage  has  a  very  limited  range  of  informa- 
tion, and  gains  knowledge  with  slowness  and  pain. 
The  scientist,  the  philosopher,  the  experienced  jurist 
acquire  knowledge  with  great  facility,  accuracy,  and 
pleasure.  Training,  so  far  as  it  relates  to  the  observ- 
ing powers,  means  the  leading  of  the  pupil  to  so  use 
each  of  his  senses  as  will  ensure  its  highest  develop- 
ment. The  trained  man  sees,  hears,  feels,  smells,  and 
tastes  in  such  manner  as  to  extort  from  nature  her 
secrets.  He  knows  the  objects  about  him,  or  at  least 
can  know  them.  The  work  of  the  trainer  is  less  the 
giving  of  information  about  objects  than  calling  into 
vigorous  and  healthy  exercise  the  perceptive  powers. 
He  is  not  to  "give  object-lessons,"  but  to  train  the 
pupil  to  skill  in  studying  objects. 

The  pupil  understands  V:he  full  import  of  the  facts 
accumulated  only  when  he  has  thought  profoundly 
about  them,  that  is,  when  he  has  by  analysis,  com- 
parison, abstraction,  judgment,  reasoning,  etc.,  com- 
prehended them  in  their  parts,  relations,  uses,  history, 
etc.  The  difference  between  tellino-  and  traininG:,  can 
perhaps  not  be  illustrated  better  than  by  reference  to 
the  thinking  powers.  It  is  one  thing  to  communicate 
to  a  pupil  the  results  of  thinking,  and  quite  another 
to  train  him  to  think.  There  are  several  stages  or 
states  of  the  intellect  in  relation  to  knowledge. 
They  may  be  illustrated  by  an  example  from  geome- 
try. One  child  may  commit  to  memory  the  proposi- 
tion that  "  the  sum  of  the  squares  described  on  the 
two  sides  of  a  right-angled  triangle  are  equal  to  the 
square  described  on  the  hypothenuse,"  with  a  vague 


24  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

notion  of  its  meaning.  Another  may  regard  it  as  a 
fact  which  he  clearly  apprehends,  and  accepts  on 
authority.  A  third  may  not  only  believe  it  to  be 
true,  but  may  be  able  to  follow  the  line  of  reasoning, 
step  by  step,  from  the  beginning  to  the  "  O.  E.  D." 
A  fourth  may  devise  a  method  of  proof  of  his  own  ; 
while  a  fifth,  observing  the  triangle,  may  divine  the 
truth,  state  the  proposition,  and  originate  the  demon- 
stration of  it.  Training  aims  to  lead  the  pupil  to  this 
highest  stage,  where  he  not  only  sees  facts,  but  so 
brings  to  bear  upon  them  his  powers  of  thought  as  to 
comprehend  them.  Knowledge,  thus  acquired  and 
mastered  by  the  understanding,  can  be  reproduced  by 
the  memory  and  the  imagination.  Training  seeks  to 
render  the  memory  facile,  retentive,  accurate,  com- 
prehensive, and  ready,  and  the  imagination  vivid  and 
true  to  nature. 

But  knowledge  has  a  practical  value.  It  can  be 
applied  to  the  mechanical  industries  and  to  the  fine 
arts.  The  mind  has  been  trained  when  it  can  make 
a  ready  application  of  its  accumulated  store  of  knowl- 
edge to  the  daily  needs  of  life.  All  education  should, 
in  a  sense,  be  industrial.  That  is,  the  pupil,  who  is 
trained  rather  than  taught,  is  led  to  see  that  books 
are  only  keys  to  nature.  Botany  is  only  the  study  of 
plants,  and  enables  him  to  understand  and  use  the 
things  that  grow  in  his  field  and  garden.  History 
gives  him  a  clearer  understanding  of  his  neighbors 
and  makes  him  a  better  citizen.  Training  trans- 
mutes knowledge  into  wisdom,  science  into  skill, 
philosophy  into  fact. 


TRAINING  IN  EDUCATION.  25 

One  of  the  highest  achievements  of  the  human 
soul  is  that  of  expressing,  in  appropriate  language, 
its  knowledge  and  thoughts  of  facts  and  principles 
and  their  relations.  Next,  certainly,  to  the  power  of 
thought  is  the  power  of  language.  Ability  to  express 
thought  and  emotion,  so  as  to  convey  to  others  the 
exact  state  of  one's  mind,  and  to  awaken  in  them 
corresponding  states,  is  very  unusual  even  among 
educated  people.  Composition  clear,  forcible,  pleas- 
ing ;  correct  description,  accurate  narration,  con- 
vincing argument  and  persuasive  appeal,  elegant 
conversation,  and  winning  oratory  are  accomplish- 
ments possessed  by  few.  Training  aims  to  call  the 
powers  into  exercise,  so  that  the  student  can  both 
write  and  speak  well.  One  may  parse  correctly  and 
speak  incorrectly  ;  may  be  well  versed  in  the  princi- 
ples of  rhetoric  and  have  little  power  of  language ; 
may  understand  all  the  moods  of  the  syllogism  and 
be  able  neither  to  convince  nor  persuade.  Training 
gives  him  mastery  over  that  subtlest  of  instruments, 
human  speech. 

Training  seeks  to  lead  the  pupil  through  such 
exercises  or  operations  as  will  tax  each  of  the  powers, 
or  faculties,  and  not  one  only.  The  soul  is  endowed 
with  sensibility,  conscience,  and  will  as  well  as  with 
intellect.  A  fully  developed  soul,  that  is,  a  well- 
trained  soul,  not  only  knows  but  feels  and  not  only 
feels  but  acts.  The  appetites,  desires,  affections,  and 
emotions  are  as  much  integral  parts  of  the  soul  as 
thoughts  or  volitions. 

I  may  illustrate    the  difference  between  teaching 


26  ST  UDIES  IN  FED  A  GOGY. 

and  training  by  describing  a  scene  I  once  witnessed 
in  a  college  classroom.  The  teacher  was  the  hon- 
ored president  of  the  institution,  a  man  renowned  for 
learning  and  venerable  in  years  and  character.  His 
pupils  were  seniors.  The  subject,  ethics.  With  a 
book  open  before  him,  he  questioned  the  students 
one  by  one  as  to  what  was  said  on  the  various  parts 
of  the  subject  under  consideration,  while  he  recorded 
the  marks  to  correspond  with  the  answers.  During 
the  period  of  half  an  hour  I  think  I  heard  no  single 
recitation  that  indicated  anything  more  than  a  feeble 
effort  at  mere  recollection.  There  was  not  only  no 
attempt  at  independent  thinking,  but  there  was  not 
even  a  show  of  a  serious  endeavor  to  master  the 
thought  of  the  author.  Meanwhile  these  students  of 
ethics  were  indulging  in  most  ;/;/ethical  conduct, 
levity,  frivolity,  disrespect  to  their  teacher,  indiffer- 
ence to  the  subject,  want  of  self-control  and  of  all 
moral  earnestness. 

Training  seeks  to  awaken  and  regulate  desire  for 
society,  for  approbation,  property,  life,  happiness, 
etc.,  together  with  all  right  affections,  such  as  patri- 
otism, filial  affection,  philanthropy ;  noble  emotions, 
such  as  love  of  the  beautiful,  love  of  the  sublime, 
reverence,  etc.  Training  seeks  for  its  ultimate  end 
the  awakening  and  disciplining  of  each  and  every 
endowment,  so  that  the  soul,  with  all  its  powers 
developed  harmoniously  and  to  the  highest  degree, 
stands  forth  complete,  a  symmetrical  whole. 

An  instructor  can  only  impart  a  portion  of  his  own 
limited  store  of  knowledge ;  one  who  causes  to  learn 


TRAINING  IN  EDUCATION. 


27 


may  lead  the  child  to  the  exhaustless  fountains  where 
he  may  drink  his  fill.  A  trainer,  though  a  weakling, 
may  see  a  giant  develop  under  his  wise  direction. 

Training  then  is  only  a  part  of  the  teacher's  task, 
not  all  of  it.  He  is  to  guide  and  instruct.  Each  of 
these  is  an  important  part  of  his  work,  and  no  dis- 
cussion of  teaching  can  be  complete  or  philosophical 
that  ignores  or  belittles  either  of  these.  There  was 
indeed  a  time  when  books  were  scarce,  and  the 
teacher's  memory  was  the  great  storehouse  of  knowl- 
edge, and  he  a  walking  encyclopaedia;  when  instruct- 
ing, or  mere  giving  information,  constituted  a  more 
important  part  of  his  work  than  it  does  to-day.  The 
multiplication  of  books  and  the  increase  of  facilities 
for  gaining  knowledge  has  doubtless  greatly  dimin- 
ished the  importance  of  this  part  of  his  work,  but  it 
has  by  no  means  done  away  with  it. 

His  chief  business,  however,  is  not  to  give  informa- 
tion, not  to  impart  knowledge,  nor  even  to  cause  the 
pupil  to  learn  ;  but  it  is  to  train  the  pupil's  powers. 
Let  me  suggest  some  reasons  for  this  statement. 

I.  Training,  more  nearly  than  any  other  work  of 
the  teacher,  meets  the  ideal  of  education.  By  the 
concensus  of  opinion  among  the  ablest  thinkers  on 
this  subject,  a  man  is  educated  only  when  his  powers 
are  developed.  Here  is  Landon's  definition  of  edu- 
cation :  "  Taking  into  account  both  functions  of 
education,  we  may  say  that  when  a  person  has  stored 
his  mind  with  all  serviceable  materials  and  cultivated 
his  faculties  to  such  an  extent  that  he  is  able  to  make 
a  vigorous  use  of  the  knowledge  he  possesses ;  when 


2  8  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

his  moral  power  has  become  so  developed  and  expe- 
rienced that  he  not  only  has  a  delicate  appreciation 
of  duty  but  his  conscience  gives  its  sanction  to  that 
which  his  intelligence  dictates ;  when  his  will  has 
been  strengthened  to  such  a  degree  that  he  is 
enabled  to  act  with  decision  and  bear  with  constancy 
the  strain  of  difficulty  and  disappointment ;  when  he 
recognizes  his  relationship  to  a  Superior  Being  and 
realizes  that  his  every  action  may  have  an  influence 
not  only  for  time  but  for  eternity  ;  and  lastly,  when 
his  mind  has  acquired  such  susceptibility  to  the 
beauties  both  of  nature  and  of  art  that  it  adds  to  his 
pleasures  and  softens  his  cares,  —  then  he  is  edu- 
cated." The  underlying  thought  in  this  is  develop- 
ment, or  such  an  unfolding  of  the  powers  of  an 
individual  as  can  come  only  from  exercise.  The 
direction  of  this  exercise  by  the  teacher,  which 
results  in  this  exalted  state  of  the  pupil,  is  what  is 
meant  by  training.  No  other  part  of  his  work  so 
nearly  corresponds  to  the  high  ideal  of  education  as 
this. 

2.  There  can  be  no  successful  work  of  instruction 
without  a  preliminary  work  of  training.  All  our 
knowledge  of  the  external  world  comes  to  us  through 
the  senses.  Knowledge  is  primarily  immediate,  con- 
scious contact  of  the  soul  with  things.  Ideas  result 
from  sense  impressions.  Thoughts  spring  up  from 
the  contemplation  of  things.  The  mind  must  appre- 
hend from  its  own  inherent  energies.  Every  act  of 
acquisition  is  an  act  of  mental  exercise.  It  is  by  this 
use  of  its  varied  powers  of  perception  that  the  mind 


^ 


TRAINING   IN  EDUCATION.  29 

increases  in  capacity  and  strength.  The  elements  of 
knowledge,  ideas  of  form,  color,  size,  weight,  exten- 
sion, odors,  tastes,  etc.,  must  of  necessity  be  intuitive, 
that  is,  must  come  by  observation  of  things.  They 
cannot  come  by  verbal  description.  Instruction 
cannot  convey  them.  Elementary  ideas  must  be 
awakened  in  the  mind  by  presenting  the  appropriate 
objects.  Training  the  observing  powers  underlies, 
therefore,  all  instruction.  It  is  fundamental,  a  con- 
dition precedent.  There  can  be  absolutely  no  pro- 
gress without  it. 

If  it  should  be  said  that  the  time  for  training  the 
perceptive  powers  is  in  childhood,  and  that  this  work 
belongs  preeminently  to  the  nursery,  the  kinder- 
garten, and  the  primary  schools,  and  consequently 
does  not  concern  the  teachers  in  the  higher  grades, 
the  reply  is  not  far  to  seek.  In  the  first  place  the 
work  is  either  not  done  at  home  and  in  the  lower 
grades,  or,  if  done,  is  done  poorly.  Every  child,  by 
the  necessities  of  the  case,  is  compelled,  of  course,  to 
use  his  senses.  They  do  indeed  grow  by  exercise. 
But  it  is  the  common  observation  of  teachers  that 
children,  on  entering  school,  have  a  very  imperfect 
use  of  these.  Teachers  in  colleges,  as  well  as  those 
who  teach  in  high  and  grammar  schools,  find  a 
lamentable  lack  of  control,  on  the  part  of  pupils,  of 
their  observing  powers.  Besides,  even  if  the  child 
had  been  under  systematic  training  in  the  nursery, 
and  in  the  lower  grades  of  school,  there  would  still 
remain  the  necessity  for  a  higher  order  of  the  same 
kind  of  training  in  higher  grades.     Observation  be- 


30  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

comes  more  minute,  complex,  and  sustained  as  the 
pupil  advances  in  his  pursuits.  Training  should  fit 
him  for  the  best  work,  in  all  stages  of  school  life. 

Again,  the  acquisition  of  knowledge,  which  begins 
in  sense  perceptions,  is  only  complete  when  all  the 
powers  of  the  mind,  memory,  imagination,  and  the 
reasoning  faculties  have  done  their  work.  Merely 
seeing  a  thing  is  not  getting  a  knowledge  of  it.  It 
must  be  revolved  in  mind,  thought  about.  Commit- 
ting a  thing  to  memory  is  not  learning  it  any  more 
than  swallowing  food  is  taking  nourishment.  The 
food  must  be  digested  and  assimilated  to  be  of  real 
service.  Knowledge  must  undergo  an  analagous  pro- 
cess before  it  becomes  brain  fibre  or  spiritual  power. 

Before  pouring  corn  into  the  hopper,  the  miller 
sees  to  it  that  the  millstones  and  all  connecting 
machinery  is  in  proper  working  order.  The  overseer 
does  not  begin  to  thrust  his  cotton  into  the  receptacle 
till  all  the  varied  and  complicated  machinery  is  in 
readiness,  so  that  the  carding,  spinning,  twisting,  and 
weaving  may  go  forward  together.  The  conductor 
does  not  cry  "All  aboard,"  till  he  knows  that  the 
engine  is  ready  to  start. 

Mere  lecturing  a  child,  whose  interest  is  not 
awakened  and  whose  powers  are  not  active,  is  about 
as  effective  as  attempting  to  fill  a  jug  by  pouring 
water  on  it  while  it  is  corked.  Knowledge  merely 
lodged  in  the  memory  is  about  as  serviceable  as 
money  locked  up  in  a  vault.  Money  to  be  helpful 
must  be  in  circulation  in  the  channels  of  trade ; 
knowledice  to  be  of  worth  must  enter  into  the  circu- 


TRAINIMG  IN  EDUCATION. 


31 


lation  of  thought.  There  can  be  no  effective  teach- 
ing, or  instructing,  or  imparting  of  information,  that 
is  not  preceded  or  accompanied  by  the  training  of  the 
thinking  powers. 

The  high  function  of  the  imagination,  in  facilitating 
the  reception  of  information,  is  imperfectly  understood 
or  appreciated.  Without  the  ability  to  form  clear,  dis- 
tinct mental  pictures  of  objects  and  scenes  described, 
which  are  absent  in  space  and  distant  in  time,  the 
process  of  learning  is  impossible.  The  pupil's  pro- 
gress will  be  in  proportion  to  the  normal  activity  of 
this  great  endowment.  But  the  imagination,  like  all 
other  faculties,  is  largely  dependent  for  its  efficiency 
upon  training. 

That  there  can  be  no  assimilation  of  information 
without  a  vigorous  exercise  of  the  reasoning  powers, 
in  every  case  where  the  information  involves  reason- 
ing processes,  is  equally  certain.  Many  students, 
whose  reasoning  powers  have  not  been  developed, 
and  who,  consequently,  have  attempted  to  commit  to 
memory  truths  which  should  be  reasoned  out,  give 
up  in  despair,  and  abandon  the  effort  to  complete  a 
course  of  liberal  study. 

Edward  Everett  Hale  says  that  his  teachers  dis- 
gusted him  with  the  classics,  and  with  themselves 
too.  A  distinguished  college  president  said  to  me, 
quite  recently,  that  he  would  like  to  begin  at  the 
beginning  of  his  education  and  go  over  the  entire 
course.  "But,"  said  he,  "I  would  like  to  begin  by 
shooting  some  of  my  early  teachers,  who  so  discour- 
aged me  that  at  one  time  I  abandoned  the  idea  of 


32 


STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 


going  to  college."  Such  experiences  are  not  rare. 
It  is  very  common  for  teachers  to  accept  memoriter 
recitations  in  geometry,  teach  arithmetic  as  a  system 
of  rules,  and  history  as  a  body  of  facts,  perform 
experiments  before  a  class  of  young  men,  who  have 
no  appreciation  of  what  they  signify  and  no  ability 
to  follow  the  course  of  reasoning  involved.  Latin 
and  Greek  authors  are  read  simply  as  parsing  exer- 
cises, and  even  logic  is  used  as  gymnastics  for  the 
memory. 

All  work  of  instruction  should  proceed  by  constant 
reference  of  all  new  truths  to  the  primal  elements  of 
knowledge  gained  through  the  senses  and  to  the 
elementary  truths  grasped  by  the  intellect.  A  child 
may  listen  to  lectures,  may  devour  books,  may  cram 
his  memory  with  statements,  but  unless,  by  previous 
acquisition,  he  can  grasp  the  significance  of  them, 
they  are  all  to  him  merely  "  words,  words,  words." 
It  is  only  as  the  mental  powers  have  been  trained 
that  they  are  able  really  to  apprehend  and  compre- 
hend the  instruction  given.  Very  much  of  teaching 
is  wholly  lost  because  of  the  utter  inability  of  the 
pupil,  for  lack  of  training,  to  comprehend  it.  No 
method  of  instruction  can  make  amends  for  this  fatal 
defect.  Information  can  be  imparted  only  in  pro- 
portion as  it  can  be  assimilated.  The  pupil  must 
not  only  consent  but  he  must  clamor  for  knowledge. 
There  must  be  hunger,  thirst,  eager  craving  that 
involves  the  fullest  activity  of  all  the  powers.  Train- 
ing must  prepare  the  way  for,  and  accompany, 
instruction  at  every  step. 


TRAINING   IN  EDUCATION. 


33 


3.  It  may  be  urged  in  behalf  of  training  that  it 
best  prepares  the  student  for  the  active  duties  of  life. 
The  common  view  of  education  restricts  it  too  much 
to  storing  the  memory  with  knowledge.  The  para- 
mount duty  of  the  student  is  to  "get  his  lessons," 
and  that  of  the  teacher  to  see  to  it  that  he  does  get 
them.  When  the  child  first  enters  school  a  text- 
book is  put  into  his  hands  ;  he  is  set  to  mastering 
words,  learning  definitions,  committing  rules,  and 
memorizing  formulas.  Recitations  consist  largely  in 
reproducing  the  statements  of  the  book  in  the  lan- 
guage of  the  author.  Examinations  are  tests  to  see 
how  much  the  pupil  has  remembered.  Marks  are 
given  on  the  basis  of  memoriter  recitations.  Stand- 
ings are  determined  by  marks.  Students  are  ranked, 
promoted,  graduated,  on  percentages  of  correct  an- 
swers given  to  questions  involving  chiefly  an  exercise 
of  memory.  The  arrangement  of  our  schoolhouses, 
the  organization  of  our  schools,  the  size  of  the  classes, 
the  number  of  teachers,  the  character  of  our  school- 
books,  the  kind  and  quantity  of  apparatus,  the 
machinery  of  supervision,  and  the  employment  of 
teachers,  all  are  in  many  instances  dominated  by  this 
idea.  Education  is  knowledge.  A  child  is  educated 
when  he  is  made  acquainted  with  certain  facts.  Now 
what  results  .•*  Much  of  the  knowledge  gained  is 
soon  forgotten.  Much  of  it  is  of  such  a  nature  that 
it  awakens  little  or  no  interest.  The  work  is  done 
perfunctorily,  the  student  expending  upon  it  the 
minimum  of  energy.  When  he  leaves  off  school,  he 
leaves  off  learninsr.     Much  of  what  he  carries  with 


34 


STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 


him  has  no  relation  to  practical  life,  or  if  it  has,  he 
fails  to  see  that  relation  and  is  unable  to  apply  his 
knowledge. 

Hence  the  criticism  that  the  schools  are  not  prac- 
tical, that  they  do  not  fit  students  for  life's  everyday 
duties.  I  need  not  say  that  much  of  this  criticism  is 
narrow  and  ill-founded  and  does  not  harmonize  with 
the  facts.  Nor  need  I  say  that  the  characterization 
here  given  is  by  no  means  universally  true.  There 
is  much  admirable  teaching,  there  are  multitudes 
of  good  schools,  there  are  thousands  of  successful 
teachers.  It  nevertheless  remains  true  that  the  evil 
here  spoken  of  is  real  and  widespread  and  calls 
loudly  for  remedy.  This  remedy  is  found  in  part 
in  the  theory  here  advocated  that  teaching  should 
consist  rather  in  training,  and  aim  at  power  more 
than  at  information.  The  mischievous  aphorism  that 
"knowledge  is  power"  should  be  replaced  by  truer 
theories.  Knowledge  may  generate  power,  but  it 
does  not  necessarily  do  so.  We  may  reach  power  by 
means  of  knowledge.  Knowledge  is  only  a  means 
to  an  end,  it  is  not  the  end.  It  is  the  instrument  of 
power,  not  the  power  itself.  It  is  but  the  fulcrum 
or  the  lever  to  which  power  is  applied.  The  power 
resides  in  the  mind.  Knowledge  is  valuable  chiefly 
as  an  agency  for  generating  mental  energy. 

The  great  test  in  life  is  rather  what  a  man  can  do 
than  what  he  knows.  Can  he  use  his  eyes  .''  Has  he 
good  judgment .-'  Is  he  a  man  of  commonsense .-'  Can 
he  think.''  Does  he  reason  correctly .-'  Has  he  power 
of  adaptation  .-^     Can  he  organize  'i     Has  he  executive 


TRAINING   IN  EDUCATION. 


35 


force?  Is  he  practical?  These  are  the  test  questions 
that  are  put  to  the  graduates  of  our  schools.  Can 
the  sweet  girl  graduate  cook  a  dinner,  sweep  a  room, 
or  superintend  a  house  ?  Does  she  have  an  intelli- 
gent interest  in  passing  events  ?  Has  she  robust 
health,  good  habits,  self-reliance,  energy,  and  power 
of  endurance  ?  Can  the  young  man  lay  aside  his 
diploma  and  keep  his  father's  accounts,  write  an 
article  for  the  newspaper,  make  a  business  trip  to 
Chicago,  give  an  intelligent  account  of  the  morning 
news  ?  Can  he  lend  a  hand  at  home,  and  turn  to 
some  good  account  in  the  daily  duties  of  life  some 
of  the  accumulated  stores  of  knowledge  amassed  in 
years  of  study  ?  Does  his  education  render  him 
more  industrious,  more  skilful  and  ef^cient,  more 
ingenious,  more  persistent,  more  practically  master- 
ful in  whatever  he  undertakes  ? 

If  he  has  been  trained  to  use  his  senses,  to 
acquaint  himself  with  natural  phenomena  at  first 
hand;  if  he  has  been  taught  to  think,  to  make  careful 
comparison,  noting  essential  differences  and  signifi- 
cant similarities,  making  patient  inductions  and  wise 
generalizations ;  if  he  has  been  led  to  form  fixed 
habits  of  thoughtfulness,  self-reliance,  moral  earnest- 
ness, inflexibility  of  purpose,  persistent  industry, 
promptness,  punctuality,  fidelity,  unswerving  devo- 
tion to  duty;  if,  in  short,  as  a  result  of  his  school  life, 
his  training  has  produced  a  well-rounded  character, 
he  will  be  able  to  meet  all  the  reasonable  demands 
that  society  can  make  upon  one  who  lacks  practical 
experience    in    actual    business.      He    will    readily 


36  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

acquire  skill  and  efficiency  in  any  calling  for  which 
his  special  talents  have  fitted  him.  Training  gives 
potency  to  all  the  soul's  possibilities. 

4.  The  emphasis  thus  laid  upon  training  gives 
dignity  to  the  profession  of  teaching.  Those  who 
regard  the  work  of  the  teacher  as  consisting  chiefly 
in  hearing  lessons,  or  in  seeing  that  pupils  commit 
certain  things  to  memory,  or  at  best  in  explaining 
the  hard  points  and  giving  information,  require  only 
a  minimum  of  qualification  in  the  teacher.  Any  one 
can  teach  who  knows  enough.  The  measure  of 
teaching  ability  is  knowledge.  Many  of  the  exami- 
nations of  teachers  are  simply  a  quest  after  the 
::ontents  of  the  memory.  The  remark  is  often  made 
that  "it  does  not  require  much  scholarship  to  teach 
our  school :  we  have  no  advanced  pupils."  The  wages 
paid  to  teachers  and  the  estimate  placed  upon  their 
work  is  determined  by  the  same  low  standard. 
Especially  is  the  evil  effect  of  this  mischievous 
notion  seen  in  the  kind  of  teachers  often  selected  for 
primary  schools. 

The  children,  being  young,  are  necessarily  very 
ignorant,  consequently  any  person  who  has  even  the 
rudiments  of  a  common  school  education  is  supposed 
to  be  capable  of  teaching  them. 

When,  however,  the  work  of  the  teacher  is  viewed 
as  that  of  a  trainer,  one  who  is  charged,  not  with  the 
duty  of  simply  acquainting  the  pupils  with  a  few 
elementary  facts  in  spelling,  reading,  writing,  etc., 
but  is  intrusted  with  the  all-important  work  of 
calling  into  healthful  exercise  all  the  latent  powers 


TRAINING   IN  EDUCATION. 


37 


of  the  pupil,  of  forming  his  habits  and  molding  his 
character,  it  takes  on  a  new  aspect.  That  this  latter 
view  is  higher  than  the  former  is  seen  from  the 
following. 

The  work  is  much  more  complex.  It  involves  all 
that  is  involved  in  the  other  and  much  besides.  The 
trainer  is  to  impart  information,  see  that  the  memory 
is  stored  with  knowledge,  and  that  this  knowledge  is 
digested,  assimilated,  and  the  mental  energy  gener- 
ated by  it  is  wisely  directed. 

It  requires  a  more  thorough  acquaintance  with  the 
mind  and  its  laws  of  development.  One  who  is  to 
be  a  trainer  of  the  mind  must  be  a  psychologist.  A 
fireman  may  do  his  work  by  simply  shoveling  the 
coal  into  the  open  mouth  of  the  furnace,  but  the 
engineer  must  needs  know  the  parts  and  powers  of 
his  engine. 

It  requires  of  the  teacher  a  wider  range  of  knowl- 
edge, more  ingenuity,  greater  persistence,  a  more 
careful  adaptation  of  means  to  ends,  and  more  gen- 
erous sympathies.  It  kindles  in  him  a  nobler  enthu- 
siasm in  his  work.  He  ceases  to  be  a  drudge,  a 
packhorse,  a  retailer  of  other  men's  thoughts,  and 
becomes  an  artist,  a  co-worker  with  God,  in  calling 
into  exercise  all  that  is  noblest  and  best  in  that 
grandest  of  the  Creator's  handiwork,  a  human  soul. 
His  work  borrows  a  glory  from  the  higher  world. 

That  there  are  hindrances  to  the  realization  of  this 
ideal  is  too  evident  to  every  experienced  teacher. 
The  diversity  of  minds  to  be  trained,  the  dreadful 
forces  operating   to  nullify  his  efforts,   the  evident 


38  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

sluggishness  and  perverseness  of  childhood,  the  low 
state  of  public  opinion,  the  unreasonable  demands 
made  upon  his  time,  the  inadequacy  of  rewards,  and 
the  lack  of  facilities,  all  tend  to  hinder  his  work,  chill 
his  ardor,  and  lead  him  to  content  himself  with 
following  in  the  easier  path  of  lesson  hearing. 

Only  a  word  can  be  suggested  here  as  to  method. 
He  who  would  be  a  trainer  needs  first  to  study  pro- 
foundly the  child  as  a  most  complex  organism  of 
body  and  soul  strangely  combined.  He  must  begin 
his  work  by  physical  training,  so  that  the  body  may 
be  not  only  healthy,  vigorous,  beautiful,  but  become 
obedient  to  the  slightest  behest  of  the  soul,  at  once 
its  home,  its  refuge,  its  protector,  its  servant,  its 
messenger,  its  mirror.  The  mind  acquires  skill  by 
mastery  over  the  body.  The  will,  that  great  autocrat, 
that  mighty  monarch,  the  conquering  hero  that 
organizes  armies,  rules  nations,  overthrows  king- 
doms, founds  empires,  asserts  its  supremacy  over  the 
seas,  and  subdues  to  its  control  the  mighty  forces  of 
nature,  begins  its  career  by  self-conquest.  Its  first 
victories  are  victories  over  the  body  in  which  it 
dwells.  "He  that  ruleth  his  own  spirit  is  greater 
than  he  that  taketh  a  city." 

The  great  laws  of  method  in  training  the  powers 
of  the  soul  may  be  epitomized  thus.  Each  faculty  is 
to  be  trained  in  its  time,  according  to  its  own  laws, 
by  the  means  best  adapted  to  it.  All  the  faculties 
are  to  receive  due  attention,  be  trained  symmetrically, 
harmoniously,  and  completely.  The  child's  individu- 
ality is  to  be  respected,  and  its  training  must  be  along 


TRAINING  IN  EDUCATION.  39 

the  line  of  its  gifts,  the  utmost  pains  being  taken  to 
counteract  evil  propensities  and  to  strengthen  weak 
points.  Exercise  is  the  one  universal  law  of  growth 
that  conditions  all  the  trainer's  work.  Nothing  is  to 
be  done  for  the  child  that  he  should  do  for  himself. 
Self-reliance,  independence,  are  cardinal  virtues. 
Habit  is  second  nature.  The  scale  of  ascent  is, 
sensation,  idea,  thought,  desire,  volition,  act,  habit, 
character. 

A  few  years  ago  I  stood  in  the  presence  of  that 
marvel  of  architecture,  the  great  cathedral  of  Cologne. 
The  stupendous  scaffolding  mounted  far  up  into  the 
air,  and  the  great  crane  still  stretched  out  its  arms, 
as  it  had  done  for  so  long,  to  receive  the  precious 
burden.  The  click  of  the  tools  of  five  hundred  work- 
men was  heard  day  by  day  as  the  work  went  on.  A 
few  months  later,  in  the  presence  of  the  emperor  and 
before  the  eyes  of  all  Europe,  the  cross  was  placed 
on  the  pinnacle  of  the  spire,  five  hundred  feet  above 
the  ground,  and  the  great  structure  was  complete. 
The  cannon  thundered,  the  sonorous  organs  sounded 
out  their  jubilee,  the  choirs  chanted  the  Te  Deum, 
and  the  vast  throng  uttered  a  solemn  and  joyous 
"Amen."  Centuries  ago  the  architect  drew  his 
plan  and  the  workmen  laid  deep  the  foundations. 
Ages  came  and  went ;  dynasties  rose  and  fell ;  gener- 
ations passed  away  ;  workmen  perished,  and  one 
master-builder  followed  another  through  the  centu- 
ries. Though  interrupted,  hindered,  delayed,  the 
work  went  on.  The  walls  rose,  the  roof  was  placed, 
the  carving  was  finished,  the  windows  blazed  with 


40  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

glory,  processions  moved  clown  the  aisles,  incense 
rose,  and  the  architect's  dream  of  a  temple  became 
embodied  in  stone  —  a  thing  of  beauty,  a  joy  for  the 
world. 

Every  pupil  that  stands  before  a  teacher  has  in  him 
possibilities  as  far  surpassing  the  grandest  cathedral 
as  a  living  soul  surpasses  dead  matter.  The  great 
Architect  has  a  plan  for  each  soul.  Every  teacher 
enjoys  the  high  privilege  of  contributing  something, 
according  to  his  wisdom  and  skill,  in  bringing  to  per- 
fection the  plan  of  God  and  of  calling  into  bold  relief 
every  lineament  of  that  spiritual  temple  that  is  to 
endure  when  cathedral  walls  have  become  a  "  shape- 
less cairn."     W'e  train  for  eternity. 


HI. 

TRAINING  THE   SENSES. 


The  foundation  of  all  knowledge  consists  in  correctly  representing 

sensible  objects  to  our  senses  so  that  they  can  be  comprehended  with 

facility. 

John  Amos  Comenius. 


The  first  faculties  which  are  formed  and  perfected  in  us  are  the 
senses.  These  then  are  the  first  which  should  be  cultivated;  but  these 
are  the  very  ones  that  we  forget,  or  that  we  neglect  the  most. 

J.  J.  Rousseau. 


How    is    it   possible   that    the    faculty    of    cognition    should    be 

awakened   into    exercise  otherwise  than  by  means  of  objects  which 

affect  our  senses? 

Immanuel  ICant. 


Why  should  not  every  ear  be  as  well  trained  as  the  ear  of  the 
musician?  Why  should  not  your  eye  and  mine  rival  the  eye  of 
the  marksman,  the  eye  of  the  mariner,  the  eye  of  the  general? 

Dr.  Beard. 


in. 

TRAINING   THE   SENSES. 

Distinct  and  sharply  defined  sense  impressions  are  the  first  ccndi- 
tions  of  clear  imagination  and  exact  thinking.  —  Sully. 

It  is  a  well-established  maxim  that  all  our  knowl- 
edge  of  material  things  takes  its  rise  in  the  senses. 
Our  ideas  of  color  must  come  through  the  eye  ;  of 
sound,  through  the  ear  ;  of  tactile  qualities,  through 
the  touch.  Each  sense  brings  us  into  relation  with 
a  particular  kind  of  knowledge  which  can  be  obtained 
through  no  other  sense.  The  eye  cannot  give  us  dis- 
tance, or  the  third  dimension ;  that  is  the  province  of 
tpuch. 

Our  processes  of  thinking,  analysis,  comparison, 
judgment,  classification,  imagination,  inference, 
reasoning,  are  dependent  upon  the  data  given  by 
the  senses.  If  these  are  indistinct,  imperfect,  or 
few,  our  thoughts  will  be  correspondingly  few  and 
imperfect.  It"  the  material  furnished  by  the  senses, 
the  percepts  of  color,  form,  sound,  taste,  odor,  etc., 
are  accurate  and  abundant,  our  intellectual  activity 
will  be  great  and  our  thought  products  valuable. 

The  scnsr;s  of  children  reach  some  degree  of 
activity  by  the  ordinary  experiences  of  daily  life, 
varying  with  the  nature  of  those  experiences,  the 
character  of  the  environment,  the  natural  disposition 

43 


44  STUDIES  IN-  PEDAGOGY. 

of  the  child,  and  the  quahty  of  parental  training. 
But  it  is  safe  to  say  that  the  great  mass  of  children, 
if  left  to  these  alone,  would  grow  up  with  a  very 
imperfect  sense  culture.  It  is  a  common  observation 
that  people  "  having  eyes  see  not,  and  having  ears 
hear  not,"  the  most  obvious  sights  and  sounds.  It 
is  a  serious  detriment  to  most  college  students  who 
enter  upon  the  study  of  natural  science  that  they 
have  no  proper  use  of   their  senses. 

There  is  need  of  early  systematic  training  of  each 
and  all  of  the  senses,  so  that  a  habit  of  observation 
may  early  be  established  and  the  mind  become  well 
stored  with  sense  concepts.  This  training  may  be 
secured  in  a  variety  of  ways.  A  commonsense  series 
of  object-lessons  will  awaken  every  sense  and  put 
the  child  in  the  way  of  observing  the  parts,  qual- 
ities, and  uses  of  common  things.  Human  body 
lessons  will  acquaint  him  with  the  obvious  facts  of 
physiology,  while  lessons  on  animals,  plants,  miner- 
als, etc.,  will  not  only  acquaint  him  with  many  facts 
of  natural  science,  but  will  train  all  his  senses  to  a 
keen,  wise  observation  of  the  world  about  him  and 
awaken  a  curiosity  in  regard  to  nature's  laws.  Les- 
sons in  color,  form,  weight,  size,  time,  distance,  touch, 
smell,  taste,  etc.,  serve  to  accomplish  specific  ends  in 
the  general  work  of  sense  culture. 

A  few  general  principles  may  be  enunciated  as  now 
well  established  and  necessary  to  be  observed  in  order 
to  secure  the  highest  results. 

I.  The  appropriate  objects  must  be  brought  into 
right  relations  with  each  sense.     This  must  not  be 


TRAINING    THE   SENSES.  45 

left  to  accident  :  it  is  the  work  of  the  teacher.     It 
requires  thought,  preparation,  intelligence,  and  skill. 

2.  The  pupil's  interest  must  be  awakened  in  the 
object  so  that  he  will  direct  his  attention  to  it  until 
the  required  percept  is  sharply  defined. 

3.  Seeing  must  be  accompanied  by  naming.  Each 
new  idea  must  have  an  appropriate  name,  and  each 
thought  must  be  embodied  in  a  sentence.  Sense 
culture  depends  on  language  culture. 

4.  So  far  as  practicable  sense  ideas  must  be 
expressed  in  various  ways.  Colors  must  be  mixed 
by  the  child  and  arranged  in  tasteful  groups  ;  forms 
must  be  drawn  with  pencil,  cut  in  paper,  molded  in 
clay,  or  fashioned  in  wood.  Things,  objects,  must 
be  measured,  counted,  weighed. 

5.  The  lessons  should  be  graded  so  that  they 
become  more  and  more  difficult,  and  tax  the  observ- 
ing powers  more  and  more  severely,  until  the  maxi- 
mum of  exercise  has  been  reached. 

6.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  all  the  while  that 
the  great  final  purpose  of  all  this  is  discipline,  train- 
ing, power,  habit,  rather  than  knowledge  ;  that  we 
are  not  so  much  giving  lessons,  as  drilling.  The 
knowledge  is  incidental,  and  is  to  be  acquired  rather 
than  to  be  imparted.     The  learning  is  the  chief  thing. 

7.  It  is  never  to  be  forgotten  that  sense  training 
is  mind  training.  To  observe  well  is  to  think  well. 
One's  power  of  observation  is  in  proportion  to  his 
mental  vigor  and  to  his  power  of  analysis,  com- 
parison, judgment,  inference,  etc.  Ideas  to  be  of 
value  must  be  apprehended  in  their  significance  and 


46  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

relations.  The  senses  are  trained  in  order  that  the 
understanding  may  be  educated.  Sense  training  is 
not  an  end  in  itself ;  it  is  a  means  to  a  higher  end. 
While  sense  activity  is  iirst  in  point  of  time,  it  is 
not  the  goal  sought  for. 

8.  Sense  training  is  to  be  distinguished  from 
mechanical  skill.  Drawing  may  be  used  as  a 
means  of  training  the  eye.  It  does  this  so  long 
as  it  is  subordinated  to  the  purpose  in  hand. 
When  drawing  becomes  an  end  in  itself,  an  art 
to  be  mastered,  however  important  it  may  be  as  an 
instrument  for  cultivating  the  taste,  securing  tech- 
nical skill,  developing  invention,  persistence,  etc., 
it  largely  ceases  to  be,  except  incidentally,  a  sense 
training  agent. 

So  does  skill  in  the  use  of  tools,  power  to  excel  in 
carpentry,  smithing,  wood-carving,  and  other  indus- 
trial occupations.  In  these  earlier  stages  they  are 
agents  in  sense  training ;  in  their  advanced  stages, 
while  still  subserving  this  end  in  some  degree,  they 
become  much  more  agencies  for  securing  skill  in 
construction  than  for  developing  a  higher  power  of 
sense  perception. 

9.  The  training  of  the  senses  begun  in  childhood, 
and  carried  on  by  means  of  objects,  familiar  lessons 
in  science,  etc.,  is  not  to  be  abandoned  when  primary 
work  is  ended.  The  higher  stages  of  mental  power 
need,  and  make  possible,  a  higher  grade  of  sense 
activity.  The  simple  object-lessons  give  way  to  a 
study  of  nature  in  her  more  difficult  aspects.  The 
laboratory  succeeds  the   schoolroom,  the  scalpel,  the 


TRAINING    THE   SENSES. 


47 


crucible,  the   blowpipe,    the    microscope,    telescope, 
and  spectroscope,  and  elaborate  experimentation  take 
the  place  of  the  simple  observations. 
To  apply  these  principles  let  me  cite 

THE    SENSE    OF    SMELL. 

It  is  quite  customary  when  treating  of  the  senses  to 
speak  slightingly  of  smell  and  taste,  as  if  they  were 
of  little  importance  in  the  economy  of  life.  When 
the  subject  of  training  the  senses  is  under  consider- 
ation little  is  ever  said  of  training  the  nose,  while 
much  space  is  devoted  to  educating  the  eye,  the  ear, 
the  hand. 

IX.  is  certainly  true  that  smell  does  not  rank  with 
sight  and  hearing,  and  demands  less  care  perhaps  for 
its  cultivation,  and  yet  it  plays  an  important  role,  and 
should  receive  its  due  share  of  attention  in  any  scheme 
of  education. 

The  function  of  smell  is  fourfold.  Like  the  higher 
senses,  it  belongs  to  the  intellectual  endowments.  It 
is  a  part  of  the  mind.  i.  Through  it  the  mind  is 
reached,  roused,  and  quickened.  The  percepts  and 
concepts  gained  through  the  sense  of  smell  can  be 
named,  described,  analyzed,  compared,  and  classified. 
They  may  thus  become  the  means  of  a  good  degree 
of  intellectual  life. 

2.  Smell  is  a  source  of  knowledge.  Through  it 
the  mind  discerns  those  qualities  in  things  which  we 
denominate  odor.  This  knowledge  it  can  obtain  in 
no  other  way.  A  surprisingly  large  number  of  objects 
have  their  own  peculiar  odor.     The  onion,  the  carrot, 


48  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

the  turnip,  and  all  vegetables  have  characteristic  odors; 
so  have  fruits,  flowers,  spices,  and  many  gases,  as  well 
as  animals,  meats,  etc.  The  knowledge  of  the  kind, 
quality,  and  condition  of  things  that  can  be  obtained 
by  the  sense  of  smell  is  very  extensive.  Not  only 
the  druggist,  the  chemist,  the  cook,  but  others,  like- 
wise, make  much  use  of  the  nose  as  a  source  of 
knowledge,  having  its  own  special  scientific  interest. 

3.  But  smell  performs  a  highly  important  work  in 
enabling  us  to  detect  foul,  hurtful  odors.  The  nose 
is  placed  at  the  entrance  to  the  mouth  as  a  sentinel 
to  guard  it  from  receiving  unwholesome  food.  It  is 
the  watchdog  of  the  stomach. 

4.  A  fourth  scarcely  less  important  function  of 
smell  is  that  of  giving  pleasure.  The  nose  is  capable 
of  ministering  to  our  happiness  even  more  perhaps 
than  the  touch  or  the  taste.  One  with  a  cultivated 
sense  of  smell  has  delights  that  another  knows  not. 
Sully  finely  remarks :  "The  cultivating  of  the  sense 
of  smell,  of  sensibility  to  the  odors  of  flower  and 
herb,  pasture  and  wood,  summer  and  autumn,  is  an 
important  ingredient  in  the  formation  of  aesthetic 
taste,  and  more  especially  the  development  of  the 
love  of  nature,  which  is  a  prime  factor  in  all  real 
enjoyment  of  poetry." 

There  is  even  a  greater  need  for  some  systematic 
training  of  the  sense  of  smell  than  of  the  so-called 
higher  senses.  The  ordinary  experiences  of  life  and 
the  regular  work  of  the  schoolroom  necessarily  give 
to  the  eye,  ear,  and  hand  considerable  exercise,  while 
the  smell  is  called  into  use  much  less  frequently  out 


r RAINING    THE   SENSES.  49 

of  school  and  scarcely  at  all  in  school.  Besides,  the 
words  expressive  of  smell  percepts  and  concepts  are 
far  less  numerous  and  exact  than  corresponding  words 
for  sight  and  hearing,  so  that  the  training  incident  to 
the  use  of  language  is  likely  to  be  far  less  extensive 
and  accurate  in  the  case  of  the  nose  than  in  that  of 
the  eye,  ear,  and  hand.  Add  to  this  the  low  estimate 
generally  placed  upon  the  sense  of  smell,  and  the 
popular  indifference  to  its  training,  as  shown  in  the 
fact  that  while  we  have  elaborate  schemes  for  train- 
ing the  eye  in  knowledge  of  form  and  color,  and  prac- 
tically none  for  training  the  nose  in  the  performance 
of  its  proper  functions,  and  we  may  well  challenge 
for  this  useful  member  the  sympathy  and  interest  due 
to  neglected  merit  and  overlooked  modesty.  In  every 
primary  school  there  should  be  some  special  attention 
paid  to  the  education  of  this  sense. 

This  should  aim  to  secure  first  the  frequent  exer- 
cise of  the  sense  until  it  acquires  strength  propor- 
tionate to  its  duties.  It  should  not  be  overworked, 
nor  called  into  undue  prominence,  but  should  receive 
its  due  share  of  attention  till  it  acquires  both  strength 
and  sensitiveness.  Second,  the  training  should  be 
such  as  to  develop  a  high  power  of  discrimination,  so 
that  the  pupil  can  discern  quickly  and  accurately  the 
different  odors  that  are  presented. 

Third,  the  growth  in  discriminative  powers  should 
be  accompanied /'rt;7/(2i-j-/'^  with  language.  Each  dis- 
tinct odor  should  be  named  and  the  closest  associa- 
tion should  be  created  between  the  idea  and  its  name, 
so  that  the  one  shall  recall  the  other.     The  pupils 


50  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

should  be  exercised  in  analyzing  complex  odors  so 
as  to  be  able  to  detect  the  presence  of  different  sub- 
stances in  the  same  compound.  They  should  be 
instructed  in  noxious  smells  which  indicate  the  pres- 
ence of  hurtful  substances,  and  should  have  some 
knowledge  of  the  disagreeable  odors,  their  origin, 
and  the  method  of   their  removal. 

Boys  might  receive  a  little  special  training  as  a  prep- 
aration for  laboratory  or  scientific  work,  and  girls  in 
view  of  their  possible  duties  as  cooks  or  housekeepers. 

A  few  very  simple  principles  suffice  for  suggesting 
a  plan  for  carrying  this  scheme  into  effect.  At  first 
the  work  should  be  simple,  making  very  light  demands 
upon  the  sense.  A  few  common  fruits,  flowers,  and 
spices  or  gums  may  be  used  with  a  view  to  forming 
a  habit  of  sharp  discrimination,  quick  recognition,  and 
accurate  naming.  The  drill  exercises  should  be  very 
brief,  aiming  at  thoroughness  rather  than  multiplicity, 
and  may  be  alternated  with  lessons  in  form,  color, 
place,  number,  etc. 

For  ordinary  purposes  it  will  be  sufficient  to  make 
the  child  well  acquainted  with  perhaps  one  hundred 
distinct  odors,  separate  and  in  combination,  and  these 
for  the  most  part  should  be  of  those  things  a  knowl- 
edge of  which  will  be  of  most  service  in  daily  life. 

When  the  sense  has  been  properly  trained  in  child- 
hood, and  a  habit  of  wise  use  established,  the  pupil 
will  be  able  to  call  it  into  exercise  on  all  needful  occa- 
sions, and  on  the  basis  of  this  general  culture  can,  if 
need  be,  secure  a  highly  specialized  development  of 
the  sense,  meeting  all  the  requirements  of  extraordi- 
nary occasions. 


IV. 

TRAINING  THE   IMAGINATION. 


As  a  man  thinketh  in  his  heart,  so  is  he. 

The  Bible. 


Certainly  the  average  child  is  bettered  by  the  cultivation  of  the 

imagination. 

Joseph  Landon. 

To  inquire  into  what  God  has  made  is  the  main  function  of  the 

imagination. 

George  Mac  Donald. 


To  imagine  in  this  high  and  true  sense  of  the  word  is  to  realize 
the  ideal,  to  make  intelligible  truth  descend  into  the  forms  of  sensible 
nature,  to  represent  the  invisible  by  the  visible,  the  infinite  by  the  finite. 

Fl-EMING, 


IV. 

TRAINING    THE    IMAGINATION. 

Imagination  is  the  power  to  recombine  and  construct  anew  materials 
furnished  by  experience.  —  Noah  Porter. 

That  power  of  the  soul  which  we  call  imagination 
is  much  more  comprehensive  in  its  functions  and 
usefulness  than  is  usually  recognized.  Many  neglect 
the  faculty,  others  presume  to  despise  it,  and  profess 
to  think  that  the  only  training  it  calls  for  is  curbing. 

Properly  speaking,  the  imagination  is  the  soul's 
ability  to  form  images  or  mental  pictures  of  objects 
of  thought.  We  could  no  more  dispense  with  imagi- 
nation than  we  could  dispense  with  memory.  Indeed 
memory  itself  is  only  a  form  of  imagination  :  the 
process  of  remembering  is  the  process  of  forming 
pictures  of  things  once  seen,  or  of  recalling  as 
objects  of  present  thought  past  experiences.  When 
I  vividly  recall  a  past  scene,  such  as  a  battle,  I 
picture  it  as  present,  and  see  again  the  fighting 
soldiers  and  hear  the  clash  of  arms. 

It  is  by  the  use  of  this  power  that  we  are  able  to 
understand  descriptions  of  objects,  persons,  or  events 
that  we  have  never  seen.  History  is  lifeless,  unin- 
teresting, and  utterly  incomprehensible  except  as  we 
are  able  to  form  a  lively  mental  picture  of  the  scenes, 
places,  and  persons  described  in  the  narrative. 

53 


54  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

The  works  of  the  great  jioets  and  novelists  are 
without  meaning  to  him  whose  imagination  is  inac- 
tive. Thus  a  large  body  of  the  world's  best  litera- 
ture is  to  him  profitless. 

The  student  of  science,  no  less  than  the  student 
of  literature,  is  dependent  upon  the  services  of  the 
imagination.  The  search  for  causes  must  be  under 
its  lead.  By  its  help  the  geologist,  the  naturalist, 
and  the  astronomer  see  with  the  mind's  eye  the  oper- 
ation of  forces  active  in  bygone  eras,  and  witness 
the  vast  panorama  that  has  unrolled  itself  through 
the  ages. 

All  art  is  the  outgrowth  of  the  imagination.  The 
sculptor,  before  he  has  struck  a  blow  with  the  chisel, 
sees  in  the  shapeless  block  of  marble,  perfect  in 
every  lineament,  the  matchless  form  he  would  liber- 
ate. The  cathedral  stands  complete  from  turret  to 
foundation  stone  in  the  architect's  mind  before  the 
workman  begins  his  labor.  The  painter  simply  puts 
on  canvas  as  best  he  may  a  rude  copy  of  the  picture 
already  finished  in  his  imagination.  Imagination  is 
the  servant  of  the  man  of  business  no  less  than  of 
the  poet  and  of  the  artist.  It  plans  the  work  of  the 
farmer  and  of  the  blacksmith  ;  arranges  the  details 
of  the  week's  work  for  the  thoughtful  housewife,  and 
directs  all  the  labor  of  preparation  for  the  grand 
entertainment  ;  it  disposes  all  the  contemplated 
movements  of  the  general  on  the  field  of  battle 
before  he  has  set  a  single  squadron  in  the  field.  It 
is  the  presiding  genius  of  the  patent  office,  and  the 
mother  of  inventions.  It  arranges  the  teachers'  pro 
grammes  and  plans  the  schoolboys'  sports. 


TRAINING    THE   IMAGINATION. 


55 


It  has  a  high  office  in  the  act  of  worship,  when  it 
summons  before  the  mind  of  the  worshiper  an  image 
of  the  object  of  his  adoration.  The  sublime  imagery 
of  the  book  of  Revelation  is  the  product  of  this 
faculty. 

By  the  aid  of  imagination  rightly  trained  the  soul 
climbs  the  loftiest  mountain  height  of  observation 
and  aspiration.  At  its  feet  are  crags  and  peaks  of 
marvelous  beauty ;  stretching  away  in  the  distance 
are  valleys  and  plains,  rivers  and  lakes,  cities,  vil- 
lages, and  the  smoke  ascending  from  many  a  happy 
home.  The  world  seems  spread  out  before  it,  and 
thoughts  of  boundless  space,  endless  time,  limitless 
beauty,  and  infinite  power,  wisdom,  goodness,  and 
love  crowd  upon  it. 

It  is  thus  evident  that  the  imagination  plays  a 
most  important  part  in  the  soul's  activities,  as  a  ser- 
vant in  toil,  a  minister  of  pleasure,  and  an  indispens- 
able helper  in  the  act  of  worship.  To  neglect  this 
power  is  to  neglect  one  of  the  soul's  most  regal 
endowments. 

To  train  the  imagination  is  to  train  the  soul  to 
form  correct  mental  pictures,  clear,  vivid,  rational,  of 
things  past  or  of  things  yet  to  be.  It  is  to  train  it 
not  only  to  seize  with  strong  grasp  upon  the  great 
essentials,  the  broad  outline  of  scenes,  events,  char- 
acters, but  to  fill  in  when  needed  every  detail,  even 
the  minutest.  It  is  to  awaken  a  quick  discernment 
of  fact,  a  profound  love  of  truth,  a  keen  sense  of 
fitness,  a  ready  passage  from  a  whole  to  its  parts,  a 
cause  to  its  effects,  an  event  to  all  its  accessories. 


56  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

It  is  not  possible  to  train  the  imagination  sepa- 
rately from  the  other  faculties.  It  does  not  stand 
alone,  it  does  not  operate  alone.  The  imagination 
is  the  soul  viewed  as  a  picture-maker,  an  artist,  a 
creator.  Every  act  of  imagination  is  inseparably 
connected  with  other  mental  processes  and  cannot 
proceed  without  them.  To  train  the  imagination  is 
to  train  the  soul  in  the  performance  of  one  of  its 
highest  functions. 

Every  rational  method  of  education  must  needs 
train  this  faculty,  for  there  can  be  no  real  progress 
in  soul  culture  that  is  not  attended  by  a  culture  of 
the  imagination.  The  use  of  this  is  involved  in  that 
of  all  the  other  powers,  observation,  memory,  think- 
ing, and  the  proper  training  of  these  must  issue  in 
the  culture  of  the  handmaid  of  them  all  — the 
imagination. 

Nevertheless  it  is  possible  to  store  the  memory 
with  words  unaccompanied  with  correct  ideas,  and 
thus  to  attain  a  seeming  culture  which  is  spurious. 
Students  may  study  geography  and  yet  have  no  true 
conception  of  the  countries,  their  natural  features, 
productions,  and  people,  which  they  talk  about. 
They  may  study  history  with  no  realization  that  they 
are  reading  about  men  of  like  passions  with  us. 
They  may  read  Milton  with  no  expansion  of  soul, 
and  recite  Cicero  without  emotion. 

Much  of  the  work  done  in  schoolrooms  is  profit- 
less because  no  intelligent  effort  is  made  to  awaken 
the  imagination.  It  is  worth  while  to  consider  the 
laws  of  the  mind's  activity  as  involved  in  the  process 


TRAINING    THE  IMAGINATION.  57 

of  imagination,  with  a  view  to  such  a  cultivation  of 
that  faculty  as  will  enable  it  to  do  its  full  work  in  the 
general  culture  of  the  soul. 

By  holding  the  imagination  steadily  before  the 
mind  as  a  distinct  activity  of  the  soul  and  one  whose 
culture  is  greatly  to  be  desired,  the  teacher  will 
attain  much  better  results  than  if  it  be  left  to  take 
its  chances  of  training  in  the  general  process  of  edu- 
cation. Culture  progresses  just  in  proportion  as  all 
the  elements  comprised  in  it  are  made,  one  by  one, 
the  conscious  aim  of  the  teacher's  efforts. 

The  soul's  power  of  picture-making  is  limited  to 
the  use  of  materials  furnished  primarily  by  the 
senses.  The  soul  is  not  strictly  a  creative  force  :  it 
simply  imitates.  The  painter's  finest  picture  is  not 
entirely  a  new  creation.  The  elements  that  enter 
into  it  he  has  gleaned  from  nature.  The  grouping, 
the  arrangement,  only  is  his. 

The  first  step,  therefore,  in  the  cultivation  of  this 
faculty  is  in  the  training  of  the  senses.  The  critical 
observation  of  nature  is  the  indispensable  prerequi- 
site to  the  exercise  of  the  imagination  where  use  is 
to  be  made  of  natural  objects.  The  more  exact, 
varied,  and  familiar  the  pupil's  acquaintance  is  with 
form,  color,  size,  weight,  birds,  animals,  trees,  flow- 
ers, and  the  phenomena  of  nature,  the  more  abound- 
ing will  be  his  resources  in  after-life  when  he  wishes 
to  create  for  himself  an  ideal  picture. 

To  insure  accuracy  of  observation  and  an  exercise 
of  the  imagination,  the  pupil  should  be  led  (i)  to 
observe,  (2)  to  describe  objects  present  to  the  sense, 


58  STUDIES   IN  PEDAGOGY. 

(3)  to  describe  objects  when  removed,  (4)  to  repro 
diice  in  his  own  language  descriptions  of  objects 
described  by  the  teacher,  (5)  to  represent  the  object 
where  practicable  by  pencil  or  crayon,  or  to  repro- 
duce it  in  clay,  paper,  or  wood. 

To  be  able  to  form  a  correct  picture  of  a  distant 
country  as  described  in  geography,  he  must  be  led  to 
study  attentively  by  observation  the  country,  city, 
town,  or  village  in  which  he  lives.  If  he  can  first 
see  and  be  led  to  describe  in  his  own  language  the 
schoolhouse  and  its  surroundings  ;  then  to  listen  to 
a  description  by  the  teacher,  modifying  his  own  when 
inaccurate  ;  and  afterwards  read  a  description  in  the 
book  verifying  its  correctness  by  observation,  he  will 
have  laid  the  foundation  for  an  extended  knowledge 
of  geography  to  be  derived  from  the  study  of  text- 
books, maps,  and  books  of  travel. 

Next  to  actual  observation  is  an  acquaintance  with 
pictures  representing  objects,  persons,  and  places 
with  which  he  is  to  be  made  acquainted  through  the 
imagination. 

Preparation  for  the  study  of  the  history  of  strange 
people  who  lived  in  foreign  lands  and  in  distant  ages 
must  be  made  by  acquainting  him  with  the  actions  of 
the  people  among  whom  he  lives.  A  knowledge  of 
current  events  is  the  key  to  history. 

In  general  it  may  be  said  that  in  order  to  insure 
the  formation  of  correct  mental  pictures,  the  ele- 
ments of  every  new  science  should  be  presented 
objectively  if  practicable.  The  beginnings  of  sci- 
ence should  be  learned  in  the  laboratory,  or  in  face- 


TRAINING    THE   IMAGINATION.  59 

to-face  contact  with  nature.  Globes,  maps,  pictures, 
blackboards,  rightly  used,  are  great  helps  to  the 
imagination. 

It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that  these 
helps  may  become  hindrances.  The  great  law  of 
activity  rules  here  as  elsewhere  in  the  development 
of  mental  power.  In  order  to  grow,  the  imagination 
must  be  used.  Description  of  an  object  present 
must  be  followed  by  description  of  an  object  absent. 
Drawing  from  objects  should  give  way  to  original 
designs.  The  reading  lesson  must  be  reproduced, 
and  then  must  come  original  composition.  A  story 
of  real  travel  prepares  for  a  recital  of  an  imaginary 
journey.  The  pupil  must  not  depend  upon  objects, 
blackboards,  pictures,  after  he  is  capable  of  dispens- 
ing with  them.  Excessive  reading  of  stories  told  to 
excite  the  imagination  may  result  in  benumbing  the 
faculty. 

The  imagination  at  its  best  estate  is,  in  a  sense,  a 
creative  power.  When  its  activity  is  confined  to 
mere  receptivity,  and  there  is  no  call  for  creative 
energy,  the  highest  development  is  impossible. 

Pictures  may  be  used  to  excite  the  imagination,  by 
calling  upon  the  pupil  to  tell  stories  about  them. 
When  an  interesting  event  is  being  read  about  or 
related,  it  can  be  arrested  at  a  point  of  interest  and 
he  be  led  to  imagine  the  conclusion.  An  outline  of 
a  story  can  be  furnished,  and  he  be  required  to 
supply  the  details. 

In  the  process  of  training  the  imagination  so  that 
the  mind  can  form  accurate  mental  pictures,  varied, 


6o  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

complex,  numerous,  with  facility,  the  teacher  must 
resort  to  experiments  which  serve  as  tests  of  the 
quality  of  the  work  done,  and  which  serve  also  as 
valuable  aids  to  the  pupil  in  his  work  of  construction. 
Among  these  may  be  named  the  following  :  — 

1.  Require  a  verbal  description  in  the  pupil's  own 
language  of  the  objects  of  his  thought.  All  that  is 
clearly  conceived  may  be,  should  be,  clearly  described. 

2.  He  may  be  asked  to  illustrate  his  thought  by  a 
diagram  or  drawing.  Many  of  the  problems  in 
mathematics  are  insoluble  because  the  pupil  has  no 
understanding  of  their  meaning.  This  defect  of  the 
understanding,  which  is  a  fault  often  of  the  imagina- 
tion, is  revealed  and  sometimes  removed  by  sending 
him  to  the  blackboard  to  make  a  drawing  or  diagram 
which  shall  correctly  set  forth  the  conditions  of  the 
problem. 

3.  The  accuracy  of  a  verbal  description  of  an 
object,  person,  or  jalace,  may  be  tested,  not  by  an 
appeal  to  the  the  textbook  for  agreement  in  phrase- 
ology, which  is  of  little  or  no  value,  but  by  compari- 
son with  the  object  described. 

4.  The  details  of  an  imaginary  journey  may  be 
tested  by  reference  to  well-authenticated  facts  perti- 
nent. Rivers  are  not  found  in  deserts,  and  lions  do 
not  run  at  large  in  cities. 

5.  Appeal  may  be  made  to  reason  or  judgment. 
Children  often  imagine  things  which  are  absurd.  Of 
course  it  is  of  the  essence  of  fairy  stories  to  be 
absurd.  They  doubtless  have  a  share,  if  not  carried 
to  excess,  in  arousing  the  faculty  of  imagination  and 


TRAINING    THE   IMAGINATION.  6 1 

awakening  a  lively  interest  in  common  objects. 
Metaphors,  parables,  and  allegories  are  useful  as 
appeals  to  the  imagination,  but  they  must  all  con- 
form to  reason. 

6.  Pictures  to  be  embodied  in  literature,  painting, 
sculpture,  etc.,  must  be  criticized  by  the  accepted 
canons  of  their  respective  arts.  A  sermon  must 
conform  to  the  rules  of  homiletics.  Nothing  can 
take  the  place  of  searching,  candid,  kind  criti- 
cism—  criticism  that  appeals  to  general  principles  and 
descends  to  minute  details  of  inaccuracy. 

7.  Too  much  stress  cannot  be  laid  upon  the  im- 
portance of  keeping  the  mind  of  the  pupil,  so  far  as 
possible,  free  from  everything  that  tends  to  pollute ; 
it  is  quick  to  lay  hold  upon  whatever  is  monstrous  or 
unusual.  Dime  museums  with  their  "freaks"  do  a 
great  deal  of  mischief.  But  worse  than  these  are  the 
detailed  descriptions  of  crime  and  revolting  experi- 
ences that  find  their  way  into  even  reputable  news- 
papers. The  utmost  pains  should  be  taken  to  create 
in  the  mind  a  loathing  of  impurity  in  all  its  forms. 
So  far  as  possible  the  child  should  be  kept  away  from 
everything  that  will  create  or  suggest  an  evil  picture. 
"  Nothing  will  do  so  much  for  the  imagination  as 
being  good.''  « 

8.  Not  less  important  is  it  to  familiarize  him  with 
objects  of  beauty  and  scenes  that  are  elevating  and 
ennobling.  A  love  of  nature,  a  taste  for  pure  art,  an 
interest  in  good  books,  a  fondness  for  the  society  of 
the  cultivated,  the  refined,  the  pure,  is  a  safeguard 
against  low  thoughts,  unholy  imaginations,  and  evil 
lives. 


62  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

The  imagination  is  that  jDOwer  that  is  especially 
concerned  in  the  creation  of  ideals.  Whatever  of 
excellence  in  character,  attainment  in  knowledge, 
worthiness  in  deed,  beauty  in  surroundings  the  soul 
hopes  for  and  strives  after  results  from  the  activity 
of  the  imagination.  Life  is  what  the  imagination 
makes  it.  We  are  ruled  by  our  ideals.  So  far  as 
the  teacher  is  concerned  the  work  of  education 
practically  culminates  in  the  formation  of  an  ideal 
in  the  pupil's  mind,  a  picture  of  some  good  to  the 
attainment  of  which  life  is  to  be  consecrated. 
Should  not  that  ideal  be  the  highest  possible  ? 


V. 
TRAINING  TO   THINK- 


It  may  startle  you  to  learn  that  the  highest  function  of  the  mind 

is  nothing  higher  than  comparison. 

Sir  William  Hamilton. 


Did  the  Almighty,  holding  in  his  right  hand  Truth  and  in  his  left 
Search  after  Truth,  deign  to  tender  me  the  one  I  might  prefer,  in  all 
humility,  but  without  hesitation,  I  should  request  Search  after  Truth. 

G.  E.  Lessing. 


By  thinking  we  rise  to  the  unseen  from  that  which  is  seen,  to  the 

laws  of  nature  from  the  facts  of  nature,  to  the  laws  of  spirit  from  the 

phenomena  of  spirit,  and  to  God  from  the  universe  of  matter  and  of 

spirit,  whose  powers  reveal  his  energy,  and  whose  ends  and  adaptations 

manifest  his  thoughts  and  character. 

Noah  Porter. 


The  training  of  the  powers  of  judgment  and  reasoning  should  be 
commenced  by  the  mother  and  the  elementary  teacher  in  connection 
vrith  the  acquisition  of  common  everyday  knowledge  about  things. 

James  Sully. 


V. 

TRAINING   TO  THINK. 

That  we  think  is  far  too  little  considered  or  cared  for  at  present. 

—  Dr.  John  Brown. 

One  great  function  of  a  rational  being  is  to  think. 
The  universe  of  matter  and  of  spirit  is  an  exposition 
of  God's  thought.  Chaos  became  cosmos  when 
matter  arranged  itself  in  order  according  to  the 
divine  plan.  Man's  high  prerogative  is  to  think 
over  again  God's  thoughts  as  objectified  in  the 
universe,  while  science,  philosophy,  and  theology  are 
man's  attempt  at  the  restatement  of  God's  thought. 
All  rational  action  is  preceded  and  conditioned  by 
thought.  Among  the  highest  pleasures  of  life  are 
the  pleasures  of  thinking. 

The  difference  among  men  as  independent  forces 
in  life  is  often  only  a  difference  in  thought-power. 
The  ability  to  collate  facts,  analyze,  compare,  and 
classify  them  ;  to  study  them  in  their  relations,  to 
search  for  causes  and  foresee  results,  so  as  to  form 
independent  judgments,  gives  to  its  possessor  influ- 
ence and  authority  among  his  fellows. 

A  knowledge  of  facts  has  its  value.  The  ability 
to  understand  what  others  have  thought  about  facts 
has  a  greater  value ;  the  ability  to  form  one's  own 
philosophy  of  facts  has  the  highest  value. 


66  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

Power  to  think  is  helpful  in  all  the  spheres  of  life. 
Even  a  slave  is  a  better  servant  if  he  can  think. 
There  are  no  walks  of  life  so  humble  that  this  power 
does  not  alleviate  sorrows,  gain  advantages,  win 
privileges,  and  bring  blessings.  Many  of  life's 
emergencies  can  be  met  successfully  only  by  the 
power  of  independent  thinking. 

In  a  republic  of  freemen  where  the  great  problems 
of  social,  economic,  and  political  life  are  left  to  be 
solved  by  the  independent  voter,  it  is  of  the  highest 
moment  that  the  pupils  in  our  public  schools,  the 
millions  who  in  a  few  years  are  to  be  entrusted  with 
the  weightiest  responsibilities,  should  be  trained  to 
think. 

That  the  average  pupil  in  our  common  schools 
does  not  acquire  the  great  art  of  sound  thinking  is 
evident  to  all  who  are  acquainted  with  the  practical 
workings  of  our  system.  Any  mode  of  instruction 
which  unduly  exalts  the  memory,  instead  of  calling 
into  healthful  exercise  the  thinking  faculties,  is 
fatally  defective.  Children  learn  to  think  by 
thinking.  Memorizing  is  not  thinking ;  observing 
experiments  performed  by  the  instructor  is  not 
thinking ;  construing  Latin  does  not  necessarily 
imply  thinking. 

Thinking  is  a  complex  process  and  involves  the 
bringing  of  a  subject  into  all  possible  relations  with 
the  mind.  In  its  highest  form  it  calls  for  the  loftiest 
endowments,  the  greatest  mental  energy,  and  the 
most  persistent  effort.  Great  thinkers  are  few. 
Those  who  are  competent  to  make  any  considerable 


TRAINING    TO    THINK.  67 

addition  to  the  advance  of  human  thought  in  any 
direction  are  rare. 

Nevertheless  thinking  may  be  analyzed  into  a 
few  simple  processes,  and  every  well-endowed  child 
may  be  so  trained  in  the  exercise  of  these  various 
processes  as  to  become  in  a  high  degree  an  original 
and  independent  thinker.  The  chief  processes  in- 
volved  in  thinking  are  the  following,   namely  :  — 

I.  Analysis.  The  first  manifestation  of  this  power 
is  in  discriminating  one  object  or  sensation  from 
another.  To  analyze  is  to  separate  into  parts,  to 
resolve  into  elements,  to  contemplate  the  qualities  of 
an  object  one  by  one.  The  mind  can  analyze  com- 
plex qualities  of  concrete  objects  by  either  of  the 
senses.  The  eye  separates  colors  ;  the  ear,  sounds  ; 
the  taste,  flavors ;  and  the  smell,  odors.  Acuteness 
of  analytic  power  comes  of  intelligent  practice.  It 
is  said  that  the  trained  eye  can  distinguish  forty 
thousand  distinct  colors. 

■  Elementary  analysis  and  the  simpler  forms  of 
logical  division  come  within  the  range  of  little 
children,  and  may  be  taught  in  the  kindergarten ; 
the  subtler  processes  of  analysis  may  be  reserved 
for  advanced  students. 

The  plan  of  requiring  students  in  the  grammar 
and  high  schools  to  make  out  topical  analyses  of 
lessons  studied  and  to  prepare  a  careful  outline  of 
subjects  before  writing  essays  on  them  is  highly 
beneficial. 

2.  The  second  element  in  thinking  is  abstraction, 
contemplating  a  single  quality  apart  from  all  others 


68  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

or  apart  from  the  object  in  which  it  inheres.  The 
chief  requisite  for  this  is  fixedness  of  attention.  In- 
telligent counting  is  a  process  of  abstraction,  and 
mathematics  lends  itself  readily  as  an  instrument  of 
discipline  for  developing  this  power. 

3.  Comparison  forms  so  essential  a  part  of  think, 
ing  that  Sir  William  Hamilton  makes  it  synonymous 
'with  the  entire  elaborative  process.  It  is  difficult  to 
overstate  the  importance  of  the  power  of  bringing 
objects  into  such  relations  to  each  other  as  to  bring 
to  light  their  resemblances  and  differences.  Simple 
exercises  in  the  act  of  comparison  should  constitute 
a  large  part  of  the  child's  activities.  It  is  only  by 
such  exercise  that  he  can  be  led  to  have  clear,  well- 
defined  ideas  of  color,  form,  size,  weight,  taste, 
smell,  etc. 

A  cardinal  defect  in  most  men's  thinking  is  that 
they  have  no  well-established  standards  of  compari- 
son. Knowledge  of  extension  can  be  had  only  by 
reference  to  some  familiar  standard  of  linear  measure, 
such  as  the  foot,  yard,  rod,  or  mile.  Weight  must  be 
conceived  of  as  a  multiple  of  an  accepted  standard, 
as  the  pound.  Ideas  of  color  must  be  referred  to 
the  primary  elements  of  color.  When  a  child  knows 
these  absolutely  and  can  detect  them  in  all  their 
modifications,  he  knows  color. 

The  foundations  of  clear  thinking  must  be  laid  in 
familiarity  with  the  primary  standards  of  color,  form 
size,  weight,  direction,  hardness,  taste,  odor.  Clear 
thinking  is  conditioned  on  close  comparison.  Com^ 
parison  always  implies  definite  ideas  of  something 


TRAINING    TO    THINK.  69 

fixed  and  unchangeable.  The  goal  of  science  is  the 
determination  of  these  fixed  standards.  They  are  to 
the  thinker  what  meridian  lines  are  to  the  geographer. 
The  pupil  needs  to  have  extended  drill  in  handling 
and  contemplating  standards  of  weight,  measure, 
time,  money,  etc.  When  he  has  been  made  familiar 
with  these,  and  has  facility  in  using  them  as  means 
of  comparison  in  thinking,  he  is  well  on  in  the  high- 
road of  culture.  Until  he  knows  by  experience,  with 
wellnigh  absolute  certainty,  the  meaning  of  the  terms 
expressive  of  the  elementary  ideas  which  enter  into 
thinking,  he  can  make  no  progress  in  true  thought. 
The  test  of  thinking  is  truth,  correspondence  to  fact, 
agreement  with  reality. 

4.  Judgment  is  but  a  completion  of  the  act  of 
comparison;  in  an  act  of  simple  judgment  the  mind 
declares  agreement  or  disagreement  between  two 
notions  or  objects  brought  into  comparison. 

The  mind  is  susceptible  of  a  high  degree  of 
training  in  judgment  as  well  as  in  comparison.  The 
two  chief  qualities  to  be  sought  after  are  accuracy 
and  quickness. 

By  a  graduated  series  of  exercises  the  pupil  may 
be  led  along  from  such  a  simple  judgment  as  that 
"the  apple  is  red,"  to  that  of  a  far-reaching  general- 
ization resting  upon  a  careful  induction  from  a  multi- 
tude of  considerations.  Such  a  judgment  would  be 
this,  for  example  :  "The  universe  is  a  work  of  design." 

The  habit  of  forming  moral  judgments  should  be 
early  established.  A  mind  eager  for  the  truth, 
painstaking  in  research,  sensitive  to  fact  and  keenly 


70 


STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 


alive  to  the  force  of  evidence,  quick  to  decide,  but 
always  ready  to  modify  opinions  to  accord  with  new 
facts,  will  be  positive,  aggressive,  and  yet  humble  and 
charitable. 

5.  One  of  the  most  useful  elements  of  thinking  is 
that  of  classifying,  grouping  objects  into  classes  by 
reference  to  their  points  of  resemblance.  By  the 
power  of  thinking  of  objects  in  vast  groups  or  classes 
the  mind  is  capable  of  an  intelligent  survey  of  the 
universe ;  without  this  power  it  would  be  oppressed 
with  the  limitless  number  of  objects  claiming  its 
attention. 

The  habit  of  grouping  into  classes  the  blocks, 
beads,  splints,  and  other  objects  which  the  child  uses 
in  the  kindergarten  may  be  utilized  a  little  later  in 
simple  exercises  in  classilncation  in  natural  history, 
botany,  zoology,  and  thus  become  for  the  child  the 
initial  step  into  the  higher  realms  of  thought  where 
he  contemplates  nations,  institutions,  processes, 
forces,  worlds,   under  wide-reaching  laws. 

6.  Closely  connected  with  classification  is  the 
process  of  induction  and  generalization.  The  great 
achievements  of  modern  science  are  largely  due  to 
the  employment  of  these  two  processes  of  thinking. 
Practical  life  owes  its  successes  chiefly  to  the  skill 
shown  in  examining  particular  instances  and  from- 
them  reaching  a  general  principle.  Children  should 
early  be  trained  in  making  correct  inferences  and 
wise  generalizations. 

This  incomplete  survey  of  the  thinking  process  is 
sufficient  to  show  the  feasibility  of  doing  much,  even 


TRAINING    TO    THINK.  7 1 

in  the  earlier  stages  of  instruction,  to  train  children 
to  correct  habits  of  thinking.  The  child's  first  lesson 
in  observation  should  awaken  the  powers  of  thought ; 
the  first  steps  in  reading  should  be  accompanied  by 
thinking ;  number  should  be  taught  by  leading  him 
to  think  ;  the  whole  course  of  reading  should  be  a 
drill  in  thinking :  selections  should  be  analyzed, 
paraphrased,  summarized,  and  commented  on  until 
he  is  master  of  the  thought.  The  study  of  geog- 
raphy should  be  an  exercise  in  comparison  ;  history 
a  training  of  the  judgment  ;  translation  should  be 
much  more  a  thought  exercise  than  is  often  the  case. 
The  study  of  the  natural  sciences  should  be  carried 
on  in  the  laboratory  by  experimental  processes  and 
not  with  the  book  only. 

Original  composition,  begun  in  the  first  year  of 
school  life,  should  form  a  large  part  of  the  daily 
exercises  through  the  whole  course  of  study,  from 
the  kindergarten  to  the  university. 

With  this  idea  kept  prominently  in  mind  the  follow- 
ing modifications  in  school  work  are  suggested  :  — 

1.  A  recognition  of  its  rightful  place  in  the  public 
school  system  of  the  kindergarten,  in  which  the  little 
child  is  brought  into  immediate  relationship  with 
thought-provoking,  natural  objects,  and  is  trained 
to  use  his  own  powers  of  observation,  thought,  and 
expression. 

2.  The  introduction  into  the  primary  grades  of  a 
greater  amount  of  oral  instruction,  in  which  the 
teacher  shall  aim  to  awaken  and  direct  thought 
rather  than  to  impart  knowledge. 


72 


STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 


3.  Increased   attention   to   the   cultivation   of   Ian 
guage  as  the  instrument  of  thought. 

4.  A  stronger  emphasis  of  the  value  in  all  primary 
and  secondary  instruction  of  the  study  of  nature, 
plants,  animals,  minerals,  rocks,  physical  phenomena, 
and  facts  pertaining  to  society,  government,  etc. 

This  will  necessitate  the  wider  use  of  the  labora- 
tory for  observation  and  experiments  in  chemistiy, 
physiology,  and  physics. 

5.  An  extension  of  drawing,  molding,  and  design- 
ing as  a  means  of  awakening  and  expressing  thought. 

Whatever  place  in  our  public  schools  may  be 
temporarily  awarded  to  industrial  training,  it  is 
probable  that  eventually  it  will  survive  only  so  far 
as  it  justifies  its  right  to  exist  as  a  culture  study ; 
that  is,  as  a  means  of  developing  the  power  to  think. 
Here  and  there  trade  schools  may  exist,  but  they  will 
stand  apart  from  the  public  schools,  or  will  supple- 
ment the  work  of  training  done  in  them,  by  giving 
to  their  pupils  a  special  drill  in  the  line  of  the  appli- 
cation of  their  energy  to  special  ends.^ 

6.  A  large  increase  in  the  line  of  apparatus  and 
books  of  reference  as  aids  to  independent  research. 

7.  Such  a  reduction  of  the  number  of  pupils 
assigned  to  each  teacher  as  will  afford  time  and 
strength  for  individual  instruction. 

8.  A  great  reformation  in  the  character  of  exami- 
nations so  that  they  shall  cease  to  be  so  largely  a 
probing  of  the  memory  in  quest  of  facts,  and  become 
rather  tests  of  thought-power. 

'  bee  report  appended  to  this  chapter. 


TRAINING    TO    THINK. 


72> 


9.  This  will  necessitate  a  higher  order  of  profes- 
sional preparation  for  the  work  of  teaching.  Teach- 
ing will  be  studied  as  a  science,  and  pedagogy  as  a 
philosophy.  The  teacher's  ability  to  think  with 
vigor,  depth,  and  breadth,  and  to  awaken  thought- 
power  in  the  young,  rather  than  his  scholastic 
knowledge,  will  be  the  measure  of  his  qualification 
for  the  high  office  of  molding  the  character  and 
shaping  the  destiny  of  the  children  entrusted  to  him. 

10.  Finally,  in  the  distant  future  it  may  lead  possi- 
bly to  the  intelligent  supervision  of  schools  by 
experts  who  know  the  value  of  a  high  order  of 
culture  and  feel  keenly  the  responsibility  of  secur- 
ing for  the  children  of  the  public  schools  all  the 
rich  results  that  ought  to  flow  from  them. 

INDUSTRIAL    TRAINING. 

At  the  meeting  of  the  National  Educational 
Association  in  Chicago,  July,  1887,  the  following 
report  was  submitted  :  — 

The  exhibit  of  students'  work  from  the  State 
University  at  Champaign,  Illinois,  showed  clearly 
both  their  method  and  results.  It  comprised 
mechanical  drawing  in  its  various  stages,  and  con- 
struction in  both  wood  and  metal. 

There  were  three  very  noteworthy  features.  First, 
it  was  quite  evident  that  the  work  was  directed  by  a 
rigid  method.  It  was  the  work  of  the  hand,  but  of 
the  hand  guided  by  the  mind.  Thought  preceded 
action.  The  brain  led,  the  hand  followed.  There 
was  an  order  of  succession,  a  progress  from  lower  to 


74 


STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 


higher.  There  was  a  reason  for  everything.  It  was 
an  embodiment,  in  lines  and  material,  of  ideas.  This 
training  culminates  in  the  solution  of  difficult  prob- 
lems by  the  invention  of  curious  machinery  for  the 
accomplishment  of  some  worthy  end. 

Students  thus  trained  do  not  become  mere  copyists, 
blindly  following  the  pattern,  but  intelligent  workmen, 
competent  to  execute,  to  plan,  and  to  direct. 

Another  feature  was  the  character  of  the  work 
itself.  It  was  well  done.  Even  that  performed  by 
beginners  showed  signs  of  care,  accuracy,  finish. 
The  use  of  tools  may  be  as  pernicious  in  developing 
slovenly  habits,  inaccuracy,  carelessness,  ^ — precursors 
of  failure, — as  the  most  vicious  system  of  rote 
learning.  It  was  apparent  that  the  students  whose 
work  was  on  exhibition  had  a  lively  industrial  con- 
science as  well  as  a  busy  brain  and  skilled  hands.  It 
seemed  to  be  a  maxim  with  them  that  what  is  worth 
doing  is  worth  doing  well.  Not  variety  but  finish, 
not  quantity  but  cjuality.  Workmanship,  excellence, 
was  stamped  on  everything. 

And  this  leads  me  to  note  the  third  characteristic 
feature  of  the  work — its  honest  simplicity.  Nothing 
seemed  to  be  done  for  show;  even  the  ornamental 
work  stood  for  just  what  it  was.  There  were  no 
flourishes,  no  trickery,  no  pretense.  Everything 
bore  the  marks  of  a  fine  moral  purpose  to  do  thorough 
work.  One  could  not  help  feeling  that  such  a  train- 
ing would  give  us  honest  and  efficient  workmen,  who, 
as  architects,  would  not  repeat  the  abominations  of 
many  modern  buildings  that  try  to  call  attention  from 


TRAINING    TO    THINK.        '  75 

their  ugliness  by  high-sounding  names,  and  bridge- 
builders  whose  work  would  stand  the  test  of  hard 
usage. 

Altogether  the  exhibit  was  most  excellent,  and 
justified  the  wisdom  of  maintaining  such  institutions 
as  the  industrial  university. 

Respectfully  submitted. 

[Signed]  T.  J.  Morgan. 


VI. 

TRAINING    THE    SENSIBILITIES. 


I  WOULD  have  my  children  able  at  each  moment  from  morning 

to  evening  to  read  on  my  face  and  to  divine  upon  my  lips  that  my 

heart  is  devoted  to  them;    that  their  happiness    and    their  joys    are 

my  happiness  and  my  joys. 

Pestalozzi. 

I    CALL    education  the  virtue  which  is  shown   by  children  when 

the  feelings  of  joy  or  of  sorrow,  of  love  or  of   hate,  which  arise  in 

their  souls,  are  made  comformable  to  order. 

Plato. 

Inflamed  with  a  study  of  learning  and  the  admiration  of  virtue; 

stirred  up  with  high  hopes  of  living  to  be   brave    men    and  worthy 

patriots,  dear  to  God  and  famous  to  all  ages. 

John  Milton. 

The  love  of  the  beautiful  is  a  part  of  human  nature,  and  one  of 

the  evidences  of  its  dignity.     It  should  therefore  be  educated  for  its 

own    sake,   as    elevating   that   nature   and    increasing   its   means   of 

happiness. 

James  Currie. 


VI. 
TRAINING    THE    SENSIBILITIES. 

The  heart  has  as  good  a  right  as  the  mind  to  a  special  training. 

—  COMPAYRE. 

In  company  with  a  group  of  travelers  I  once 
visited  the  famous  old  church  at  Freiburg  to  listen 
to  the  great  organ  which  gives  it  its  fame.  The 
organist  took  his  seat  before  the  dumb  instrument, 
and  passed  his  hands  lightly  over  the  else  silent 
keys.  At  his  touch  they  responded,  now  sweet  as 
the  notes  of  a  bird,  now  soft  as  human  voices,  and 
now  loud  and  jarring  as  the  noise  of  a  thunder- 
storm. It  was  an  hour  never  to  be  forgotten,  as  it 
revealed  to  me  possibilities  slumbering  in  the  organ 
of  which  till  then  I  had  no  conception.  The  work 
of  the  teacher  is  not  unlike  that  of  the  skilled  organ- 
ist. He  is  to  awaken  in  the  heart  of  the  child  emo- 
tions and  feelings  ranging  from  the  tenderest  pity 
for  helplessness  to  the  most  august  reverence  for 
the  Creator  of  the  universe. 

Not  infrequently  the  teacher's  work  is  conceived 
of  as  that  of  merely  imparting  instruction,  or  at  most 
of  training  the  intellect.  But  this  is  a  one-sided  and 
narrow  view  of  his  office.  He  has  to  do  with  the 
sensibility  no  less  than  with  the  intellect.  He  is  to 
awaken  feeling  as  well  as  to  impart  instruction. 


8o  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

The  soul  is  a  unit.  It  cannot  be  separated  into 
parts,  as  can  the  body.  Its  three  great  functions, 
knowing,  feehng,  and  willing,  are  inter-related  and 
mutually  dependent.  Knowledge  awakens  desire, 
and  desire  influences  the  will.  There  can  be  no 
act  of  knowing  or  of  feeling  which  is  not  also  an 
act  of  willing.  Training  to  think  must  affect  to 
some  degree  the  capacity  for  feeling  as  well  as  influ- 
ence the  will.  It  is  impossible  to  reach  the  sensi- 
bility except  through  the  intellect.  We  do  not 
desire  that  which  we  know  nothing  about. 

Nevertheless,  there  is  a  broad  line  of  distinction 
between  the  sensibility  and  the  intellect,  on  the  one 
hand,  and  the  will,  on  the  other.  The  consciousness 
of  knowing  is  one  thing,  that  of  feeling  pleasure  or 
pain  is  quite  another.  The  two  states  are  wholly 
unlike.  Not  less  dissimilar  are  an  act  of  willing 
and  an  act  of  feeling  or  of  knowing. 

These  three  great  elements  of  being  may  exist  in 
different  individuals  in  very  unequal  proportions.  In 
some  they  are  very  evenly  balanced,  in  others  the 
propensity  for  knowledge  predominates  over  both 
sentiment  and  action  ;  in  some  the  feelings  are 
uppermost,  while  in  others  the  will  is  the  dominant 
factor. 

The  ideal  of  human  culture  is  that  condition  in 
which  the  intellect,  sensibility,  and  will  are  each  well 
developed,  and  all  stand  in  harmonious  relationship. 
To  know  broadly  and  accurately,  to  feel  quickly  and 
keenly,  and  to  act  with  promptness  and  effectively 
are  the  prerogatives  of  the  well-cultured   man. 


TRAINING    THE   SENSIBIIITIES.  8 1 

While  increasing  attention  is  paid  by  intelligent 
teachers  to  the  systematic  training  of  the  intellectual 
powers,  the  senses,  memory,  imagination,  thinking, 
reasoning,  very  little  attention  is  given  to  the  proper 
cultivation  of  the  sensibility,  the  appetites,  desires, 
sentiments,  emotions.  This  is  largely  not  only  a 
neglected  field,  but  even  an  unknown  territory. 
The  attention  of  the  student  of  psychology  in  the 
normal  school  is  directed  rather  to  the  faculties  of 
knowledge  than  to  the  capacities  f.jr  feeling.  The 
laws  of  memory  are  much  more  clearly  known  than 
are  the  laws  of  the  desires.  In  elaborate  treatises 
on  psychology  it  is  far  more  difficult  to  find  a  satis- 
factory discussion  of  the  feelings  than  of  the  intel- 
lect. I  know  of  no  books  of  methods  for  training 
the  feelings  at  all  comparable  with  those  for  training 
the  senses.  The  "model  lessons"  given  in  train- 
ing schools  are  models  of  instruction,  and  seek  to 
illustrate  the  best  way  of  stimulating  the  intellect, 
and  seldom  refer  to  the  culture  of  the  feelings. 
Even  books  of  model  lessons  on  morals  are  apt  to 
be  devoted  to  an  exposition  of  teaching  moral  truth 
rather  than  to  the  mode  of  awakening  right  senti- 
ments. Candidates  for  the  position  of  teacher  are 
questioned  as  to  their  knowledge,  methods  of 
instruction,  and  modes  of  discipline,  but  not  on 
their  manner  of  calling  into  proper  exercise  the 
child's  wonderful  endowments  for  feeling  pain  at 
sight  of  falsehood,  deformity,  and  evil,  and  pleasure 
at  exhibitions  of  the  true,  the  beautiful,  and  the 
sood. 


82  STUDIES   IN  PEDAGOGY. 

That  the  training  of  the  sensibiHties  should  claim 
the  serious  attention  of  the  educator  will  be  made 
evident  by  the  following  considerations  :  - — • 

I.  The  capacity  for  feeling  is  one  of  the  greatest 
factors  in  the  constitution  of  the  human  soul.  It  is 
not  practicable  in  a  brief  sketch  like  this  to  do 
more  than  outline  the  feelings,  without  attempting  a 
detailed  description.  For  convenience,  the  various 
feelings  will  be  grouped,  and  the  most  important 
ones  named. 

{a)  The  appetites.  The  lowest  group  comprises 
those  cravings  that  are  most  closely  connected  with 
the  welfare  of  the  body,  such  as  hunger,  thirst, 
suffocation,  ennui,  weariness,  etc.  These  are  ani- 
mal, and  man  shares  them  with  the  brutes. 

ib)  The  desires.  This  group  embraces  the  desires 
of  life,  property,  society,  approbation,  liberty,  power, 
truth,  and  others.  This  class  loses  its  physical 
character  and  becomes  more  distinctively  psychical. 

{c)  The  affections.  In  this  are  found  love  for  self, 
for  parents,  for  children,  conjugal  and  fraternal  affec- 
tion ;  friendship,  patriotism,  philanthropy,  gratitude, 
benevolence,  pity,  and  piety,  or  love  of  God.  This 
group  is  marked  by  a  moral  element  which  is  absent 
from  the  others  named. 

{d)  The  aesthetic  emotions  of  beauty,  grandeur, 
sublimity  constitute  another  group. 

{e)  A  fifth  is  made  up  of  the  moral  feelings  of 
obligation,  a  sense  of  duty,  remorse,  shame,  and 
self-approbation. 

(/)  Into  a  sixth   may  be  gathered    the    religious 


TRAINING    THE   SENSIBILITIES.  83 

emotions,  patience,  faith,  hope,  repentance,  rever- 
ence, and  adoration. 

(yg)  We  may  bring  together  into  a  separate  class 
what  may  be  called  the  passions,  avarice,  ambition, 
envy,  jealousy,  hatred,  anger,  revenge,  pride,  vanity, 
and  others. 

This  list,  though  by  no  means  exhaustive,  is 
suggestive  of  the  large  place  in  the  human  soul 
which  is  occupied  by  the  feelings.  They  form  an 
integral  part  of  our  constitution  and  claim  no  less 
consideration  than  does  the  intellect.  To  ignore  the 
feelinofs  is  to  iijnore  the  soul  itself  in  the  realm  of 
its  greatest  activities. 

2.  If  a  contemplation  of  the  soul's  varied  capacity 
for  feeling,  embracing  so  wide  a  range  of  possibility 
of  pain  and  pleasure,  does  not  establish  its  claim  to 
be  considered  by  the  educator  in  any  comprehensive 
scheme  of  symmetrical  culture,  consider  the  part  it 
plays  in  the  life  of  the  soul.  Without  endorsing  the 
epicurean  notion  that  pleasure  is  life's  end  and  aim, 
it  must  be  admitted  that  the  practical  test  that  most 
men  apply  in  estimating  the  value  of  any  experience 
is  the  aggregate  of  happiness  or  pleasurable  feeling 
enjoyed. 

3.  The  brain  is  the  servant  of  the  heart.  Men 
think  in  order  that  they  may  feel.  They  accumulate 
knowledge  chiefly  for  the  sake  of  the  emotions  it 
awakens. 

4.  The  feelings  are  a  truer  index  of  the  soul  than 
is  the  intellect.  "  As  a  man  thinketh  in  his  heart  so 
is    he."     What    a    man    feels,   rather   tlian  what    he 


84  STUDIES   IN  PEDAGOGY. 

knows,  is  a  criterion  of  his  worth.  In  the  realm  of 
feeling  lies  his  true  greatness.  The  marvelous 
nature  of  his  soul  is  shown  by  its  capacity  for 
countless  varieties  of  feeling  and  infinite  combina- 
tions of  emotion.  He  is  capable  of  an  ambition 
that  covets  the  world  and  of  a  self-abnegation  that 
courts  a  martyr's  death.  He  listens  with  delight  to 
the  sweet  notes  of  a  bird  and  rejoices  in  the  midst 
of  a  mighty  storm  at  sea.  He  spares  a  spider  for 
pity  and  depopulates  a  city  for  revenge.  The  most 
conflicting  emotions  often  contend  for  the  mastery 
within  his  breast.  The  supreme  command  laid  by 
the  Saviour  upon  men  is  to  love  God  supremely  and 
their  neighbors  as  themselves. 

5.  The  importance  of  the  feelings  is  still  further 
shown  by  the  fact  that  action  springs  out  of  feeling. 
The  will  is  largely  dependent  upon  motive.  We 
usually  act  as  we  feel.  The  will  is  little  more  than 
the  heart's  executor.  If  one  would  know  how  a  man 
will  act,  let  him  learn  how  he  feels.  The  great 
achievements  of  men  are  traceable  to  their  desires. 
Ambition  prompted  Alexander  to  conquer  the  world ; 
love  of  adventure  sent  Magellan  round  the  globe ; 
love  of  gold  peopled  California  ;  patriotism  gave 
the  world  a  Washington,  and  philanthropy  a 
Lincoln. 

6.  Feeling  issues  m  action,  actions  become  habit, 
and  habits  crystallize  into  character.  The  formation 
of  a  good  character,  therefore,  is  largely  dependent 
upon  the  right  unfolding  of  feeling. 

7.  It    is     especially    noteworthy   that     in     human 


TRAINING    THE   SENSIBILIT/ES.  85 

conduct  the  evil  passions,  hatred,  revenge,  ambi- 
tion, avarice,  jealousy,  and  the  like,  play  a  great 
part.  Vice  and  crime  stain  human  annals  and  sicken 
the  student  of  history.  The  unwelcome  truth  is 
often  forced  upon  us  that  vice  is  triumphant  and 
that  evil  predominates. 

Along  with  this  is  the  other  sad  fact  that  with 
multitudes  of  human  beings  life  is  rather  a  series 
of  sorrowful  experiences  than  a  succession  of  pleas- 
ures. So  awful  is  the  amount  of  human  suffer- 
ing that  some  serious-minded  men  have  earnestly 
contended  that  "life  is  not  worth  the  living." 

The  human  heart  may  be  compared  to  a  fertile 
field,  capable  of  producing  fruits  in  great  profusion 
and  flowers  in  endless  variety.  Under  proper  care 
it  yields  all  that  can  be  desired  for  comfort  and 
pleasure.  But  if  neglected,  the  weeds  root  out  the 
flowers,  the  tares  supplant  the  wheat,  the  garden 
becomes  a  desert,  and  the  field  a  wilderness.  The 
heart  of  man,  which  is  capable  of  exercising  the 
noblest  desires,  the  tenderest  affections,  the  finest 
sentiments,  and  the  sublimest  emotions,  is  likewise 
capable  of  being  ruled  by  the  most  depraved  appe- 
tites, brutish  passions,  and  fiendish  emotions. 

Enough  has  been  said  to  suggest  the  unspeakable 
importance  of  right  feelings  to  the  individual  and  io 
society.  Language  is  inadequate  to  portray  its  full 
significance.  Nothing  more  than  our  susceptibility 
of  suffering  and  our  capacity  for  enjoyment  shows 
how  "fearfully  and  wonderfully  we  are  made." 
Only  the  conscious  revelations  of  eternity  can  fully 


86  STUDIES  LV  PEDAGOGY. 

unfold  to  US  the  awful  depths  of  suffering  into  which 
a  soul  may  descend  or  the  unimagined  heights  of 
joy  to  which  it  may  soar.  The  murderer  on  the 
scaffold  awaiting  the  fatal  word,  and  the  seraphic 
evangelist  depicting  the  glories  of  "Jerusalem  the 
golden,"  are  types  of  the  extremes  of  which  man  is 
capable. 

The  question  may  here  arise,  What  has  the 
teacher  to  do  with  all  this  .-*  The  answer  is  at 
hand.  In  each  child  lie  all  the  possibilities  of  pain 
and  pleasure.  The  sensibility  is  an  integral  part 
of  the  human  soul.  The  chords  of  the  heart  are 
all  there,  waiting  to  be  swept  by  the  masterhand. 
They  can  give  out  the  harshest  discords  and  they 
can  pour  forth  the  harmonious  strains  of  the  sublim- 
est  oratorios.  The  original  endowments  of  capacity 
for  feeling  are  all  present  in  childhood,  simply  wait- 
ing to  be  called  into  exercise.  As  the  child  grows, 
it  gains  no  new  capacities  for  feeling,  it  simply 
experiences  the  use  of  its  original  endowments 

Very  young  children  manifest  a  great  variety  of 
feelings  :  curiosity,  love  of  society,  desire  of  liberty, 
desire  of  property,  love  of  approbation,  affection, 
hope,  fear,  together  with  envy,  jealousy,  hatred,  and 
many  others.  In  the  schoolroom,  where  a  large 
number  of  children  mingle  freely  together,  the  feel- 
ings are  likely  to  have  a  rapid  development. 

It  is  in  childhood  that  the  greatest  spontaneity 
and  artlessness  arc  exhibited  in  the  manifestation  of 
emotion.  Men  learn  to  conceal  or  counterfeit  their 
feelings,    children    seldom    do    either.       They    carry 


TRAINING    THE   SENSIBILITIES.  ':^'] 

their  hearts  upon  their  sleeves.  By  word  and 
gesture,  tones  of  voice,  and  facial  expression,  they 
reveal  the  real  nature  of  their  inward  promptings. 
As  light  and  shade  chase  each  other  in  unrestricted 
freedom  over  the  landscape,  so  the  swift  waves  of 
varying  emotions  follow  each  other  in  quick  succes- 
sion over  the  child's  face. 

The  intimate  association  of  children  of  widely 
diversified  dispositions  in  all  the  varied  employ- 
ments of  the  school  affords  an  exceptionally  favor- 
able opportunity  for  calling  into  healthful  activity 
almost  all  the  emotions  suitable  to  childhood. 

Under  skilful  training  right  feelings  can  be 
evoked  and  evil  feelings  checked.  Wise  discipline 
awakens  love  of  order,  desire  of  knowledge,  self- 
reliance,  trust,  love  of  the  beautiful,  love  of  truth, 
and  a  sense  of  obligation  to  duty,  together  with 
scorn  of  meanness,  hatred  of  deceit,  shame,  and 
remorse.  On  the  other  hand,  flattery  may  awaken 
conceit,  too  much  attention  develops  vanity,  too  rigid 
discipline  arouses  resentment  and  deceit,  lax  disci- 
pline brings  out  recklessness  and  disregard  for 
authority. 

The  teacher  unconsciously  arouses,  directs,  or 
depresses  feelings.  The  manifestation  of  feeling 
is  a  potent  agent  for  arousing  the  same,  since  feeling 
is  contagious.  The  teacher's  tone  of  voice,  manner 
of  speech,  methods  of  instruction,  and  mode  of 
discipline  are  all  forceful  in  awakening  or  lulling 
emotion. 

The    feelings   of  children  when    once    fully  awak- 


88  STUDIES   IN  PEDAGOGY. 

ened  tend  to  persist  and  to  grow.  That  which 
to-day  seems  only  a  harmless  ripple  on  the  surface 
of  the  young  child's  soul,  by-and-by  appears  as  a 
deep  and  dangerous  current,  drawing  into  its  impetu- 
ous rush  all  his  energies  and  carrying  him  on  to 
destruction.  An  approving  and  sympathetic  smile 
from  the  teacher  may  awaken  in  the  mind  of  the 
young  child  aspirations  and  hopes  which  are  only 
the  precursors  of  great  attainments.  Many  an  emi- 
nent career  in  science,  literature,  art,  or  business,  is 
traceable  to  some  childish  emotion  fostered  by  a 
sympathetic  parent  or  teacher.  And  it  is  doubtless 
also  true  that  many  an  otherwise  brilliant  career  has 
been  prevented  by  a  lack  of  kindly  sympathy  when 
sympathy  and  encouragement  were  most  needed. 
The  child-heart  is  very  susceptible  to  outward  influ- 
ences, and  feelings  are  easily  aroused  and  directed 
which  may  become  dominant  forces  in  unfolding 
character  and  fixing  destiny. 

It  is  a  consideration  of  great  weight  that  there  are 
opportune  moments  for  awakening,  deepening,  modi- 
fying, or  directing  feeling,  when  much  can  be  done. 
At  such  times  the  soul  is  plastic  in  the  hands  of  its 
guide  and  readily  yields  to  wise  direction.  These 
golden  moments  come  intermingled  with  the  child's 
work  and  play,  often  without  any  effort  on  the  part 
of  the  teacher  to  prepare  them,  while  at  other  times 
they  come  as  the  direct  result  of  the  teacher's  plans 
and  efforts.  Happy  is  he  who  can  seize  such  occa- 
sions and  use  them  wisely  for  training  to  healthful 
activity  the  feelings  that  tend  toward  duty,  virtue, 


TRAINING    THE    SENSIBILITIES.  89 

and  happiness.  These  opportunities  unimproved 
may  never  return.  The  iron  must  be  welded  while 
it  is  hot,  the  clay  be  molded  while  yet  plastic  on 
the  potter's  wheel,  else  the  clay  grows  brittle,  the 
iron  hardens,  and  the  coveted  results  can  never  be 
attained.  If  a  desire  for  knowledge  is  not  awak- 
ened in  childhood,  it  is  not  likely  to  be  in  manhood. 
If  a  child  acquires  a  dislike  for  study,  it  is  difficult 
to  overcome  that  dislike  in  later  life.  Love  of  the 
beautiful  in  all  its  varied  forms  is  denied  to  those  in 
whose  hearts  it  has  not  been  awakened  in  youth. 
Unless  the  feeling  is  aroused  in  connection  with 
simple  object-lessons,  and  lessons  in  color,  form, 
music,  manners,  and  morals  peculiarly  adapted  to 
the  child's  capacities  and  experiences,  and  thus 
grows  with  his  growth  and  intertwines  itself  with 
all  that  he  sees,  hears,  reads,  thinks,  and  does,  run- 
ning like  a  golden  thread  through  all  life's  woof  and 
warp,  it  can  never  come.  Thought  and  feeling 
should  grow  together.  Each  new  acquisition  in 
knowledge  should  awaken  its  appropriate  emotion 
and  each  new  desire  give  rise  to  new  attainments  in 
knowledge.  The  growth  of  feeling  is  not  something 
that  can  be  neglected  with  impunity  or  postponed 
at  pleasure.  It  should  proceed  pari  passu  with  the 
unfolding  of  the  intellect.  Thoughts  and  emotions 
should  be  blended  in  all  the  stages  of  their  develop- 
ment, so  that  thought  may  have  its  flowering  in 
sentiment,  and  sentiment  have  its  firm  basis  in 
knowledge. 

The  tendency  of  school  life  is  toward  a  dry,  hard 


90  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

intellectualism.  The  goal  of  endeavor  is  knowletlge. 
The  reasons  for  this  are  evident.  Limiting  the 
teacher's  work  chiefly  to  instruction  renders  it  com- 
paratively simple  ;  it  brings  results  within  the  range 
of  tests  :  and  where  these  results  are  looked  for 
principally  in  feats  of  memory,  they  can  be  reduced 
to  percentages  and  tabulated.  But  where  it  is 
required  that  the  teacher's  work  shall  include  the 
culture  of  the  feelings,  it  becomes  more  complex 
and  difficult,  less  subject  to  rules  and  routine  and 
impossible  of  mathematical  measurement.  There  is 
as  much  difference  between  the  crude  process  of 
education  that  results  in  cramming  the  memory  with 
facts  and  dates  which  can  be  called  up  at  pleasure, 
and  those  subtler  processes  that  awaken  the  finer 
feelings  of  the  human  soul  that  ennoble  and  beautify 
the  whole  nature,  as  there  is  between  the  coal  that 
is  weighed  out  by  the  ton  and  consumed  in  the 
furnace  and  the  diamond  that  flashes  back  the 
sunlight  from  the  brow  of  royalty.  We  do  not 
despise  the  coal,  but  we  look  also  for  diamonds. 
Education  must  supply  the  child  with  facts  and 
train  his  intellect,  but  it  should  not  stop  here.  It 
is  capable  of  far  higher  results,  and  should  aim  at 
nothing  less  than  the  highest.  Education  that  stops 
with  mere  intellectuality  comes  far  short  of  its  true 
aim. 

It  may  be  asked  whether  a  child  may  not  be  too 
much  under  the  domination  of  sentiment  ;  whether 
it  is  not  possible  to  excite  feeling  too  early  or  too 
violently ;  whether  special  effort  is  not   required   to 


TRAINING    THE   SENSIBILITIES. 


9' 


stimulate  the  intellectual  powers,  and  whether  feel- 
ing should  not  ordinarily  lead  to  action  ?  To  these 
questions  a  general  answer  may  be  returned  :  Yes. 
What  is  here  insisted  upon  is  that  the  teacher  should 
study  each  child  and  seek,  so  far  as  possible,  to  train 
its  powers  symmetrically,  giving  to  intellect,  sensi- 
bility, and  will,  each  its  due  proportion  of  care,  and 
seeking  to  educate  the  whole  nature,  training  the 
child  to  think,  to  feel,  and  to  act.  To  train  the 
intellect  should  not  be  the  sole  aim  of  the  teacher, 
as  seems  so  often  to  be  the  case.  Where  a  child  has 
an  excess  of  feeling  it  is  the  business  of  the  teacher 
to  repress  it  or  to  counterbalance  it  by  awakening 
some  opposite  feeling.  Fear  is  to  be  replaced  by. 
love,  timidity  by  self-confidence,  love  of  play  by  love 
of  study,  superstition  by  reverence. 

There  is  a  very  general  notion  that  the  intellect  is 
subject  to  well-ascertained  laws,  but  that  the  feelings 
are  capricious  and  subject  to  no  law.  This  is  a  hurt- 
ful mistake.  Feelings  are  subject  to  law  no  less 
than  memory  and  imagination.  There  are  laws  of 
feeling  as  well  as  laws  of  thought.  We  may  teach 
children  how  to  feel  as  well  as  how  to  think.  One 
great  psychic  law  dominates  our  whole  spiritual 
nature.  Each  power  grows  by  appropriate  exer- 
cise. Capacity  for  feeling,  as  well  as  power  to 
think  and  ability  to  act,  is  augmented  by  its  own 
activity.  Another  well-established  law  peculiar  to 
sensibility  is  that  feeling  is  contagious.  Love 
begets  love ;  a  teacher's  enthusiasm  for  study 
enkindles  a  whole  school ;    disrespect  for  authority. 


92  STUDIES   IN  PEDAGOGY. 

embodied  in  some  strong,  rude  boy,  has  a  demoraliz- 
ing effect  upon  the  entire  body  of  his  associates, 
unless,  perchance,  his  conduct  is  so  outrageous  as  to 
produce  a  reaction  in  favor  of  good  order.  There 
are  other  laws,  easily  ascertainable  and  readily  avail- 
able, for  the  proper  cultivation  of  the  sensibilities. 

How  shall  this  great  work  be  accomplished  }  It  is 
only  possible  here  to  suggest  in  bare  outline  a  method. 

First  of  all,  the  teacher  must  be  one  whose 
feelings  are  sensitive,  strong,  and  in  healthful  equi- 
poise. A  man  without  a  heart  has  no  business  to 
be  a  schoolmaster. 

In  the  next  place,  those  who  are  in  course  of 
preparation  for  teaching  should  make  a  careful  study 
of  the  emotional  nature,  with  a  view  of  becoming 
master  of  the  secrets  of  the  human  heart.  Of  what 
feelings  is  the  human  soul  capable .''  How  are  they 
aroused  ?  What  feelings  are  peculiar  to  childhood  } 
What  is  the  function  of  each  feeling .''  When  do 
feelings  cease  to  be  virtuous  and  become  vicious  ? 
How  can  they  be  cultivated  .'  How  do  feelings 
manifest  themselves  .''  These  and  similar  inquiries 
should  be  pursued  by  the  study  of  books,  by  intro- 
spection, and  the  patient  and  careful  study  of  chil- 
dren, until  the  student  has  attained  a  familiarity  with 
this  most  important  element  of  man's  nature  and 
has  acquired  a  deep  and  lasting  interest  in  the  study. 

Third  :  The  training  of  the  sensibilities  should  be 
recognized  as  a  distinct  and  important  part  of  the 
teacher's  work.  Special  fitness  and  preparation  for 
doing  it  should  be  required  in  those  who  aspire  to 


TRAINING    THE   SENSIBIIITIES.  93 

teach,  and  success  in  this  work  should  be  one  of  the 
criteria  by  which  a  teacher's  work  is  to  be  judged. 

Fourth  :  In  the  arrangement  of  programmes  for 
institutes  and  other  educational  meetings  more  prom- 
inence should  be  given  to  the  discussion  of  specific 
questions  pertaining  to  the  culture  of  the  feelings. 

Fifth :  This  subject  demands  a  more  thorough 
discussion  than  has  yet  been  given  to  it  in  works 
on  pedagogy. 

Sixth  :  In  the  location  of  school  buildings,  in  the 
adornment  of  the  grounds,  and  in  the  furnishing  of 
the  rooms  with  pictures,  cabinets,  plants,  and  other 
articles  of  interest  to  children,  increased  attention 
should  be  paid  to  the  development  of  the  aesthetic 
nature.  Imposing  architecture,  delicious  music,  land- 
scape gardening,  fine  examples  of  painting,  engrav- 
ing, sculpture,  and  statuary  are  all  suitable  accessories 
of  a  school  of  learning. 

Seventh :  In  arranging  courses  of  study,  color, 
form,  music,  drawing,  and  other  subjects  that  appeal 
strongly  to  the  sensibility  should  find  a  larger  place. 
One  of  the  delightful  and  humane  features  of  the 
kindergarten  is  the  liberal  provision  it  makes  for 
training  the  sensibility  by  systematic  lessons, 
adapted  to  the  child-nature. 

Eighth  :  The  whole  course  of  discipline,  the  daily 
programme,  the  administration  of  justice  should  be 
such  as  to  awaken  a  love  of  order,  neatness,  prompt- 
ness, politeness,  honesty,  and  fidelity. 

Ninth  :  The  method  of  instruction  should  be  such 
as  to   specially  call  into  exercise   the  power  of  feel- 


94 


STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 


ing.  Mere  memorizing  of  set  tasks  has  little  efficacy 
in  this  regard.  Constant  effort  should  be  made  to 
lead  the  child  to  use  its  own  powers  of  observation 
and  to  state  in  its  own  language  what  it  thinks  and 
feels  in  reference  to  what  it  observes.  The  use  of 
objects,  microscopes,  pictures,  vivid  narratives,  and 
good  literature  each  has  a  place  in  any  scheme  of 
instruction  designed  to  reach  the  heart.  Short  talks 
in  regard  to  current  events,  comments  on  the  pass- 
ing phenomena  of  the  seasons,  improvement  of  the 
incidents  of  school  life  may  be  wisely  employed. 
Occasions  presented  by  lessons  in  reading,  geography, 
history,  physiology,  astronomy,  and  other  studies, 
should  be  utilized  in  arousing  and  directing  feeling. 

Tenth  :  The  school  should  be  pervaded  by  a  high 
moral  and,  if  possible,  religious  tone.  There  should 
be  awakened  a  keen  sense  of  honor,  an  exalted  notion 
of  duty,  an  unswerving  adherence  to  principle,  an 
unconquerable  aversion  to  falsehood,  a  reverence  for 
authority,  penitence  for  wrong,  and  an  honest,  simple 
fear  of  God  as  maker,  observer,  and  judge. 

This  conception  of  the  teacher's  work,  while 
adding  to  its  difficulty,  adds  also  greatly  to  its 
dignity.  To  train  the  sensibility  so  that  it  shall 
respond  to  all  the  varied  influences  that  affect  it 
in  such  manner  as  to  multiply  its  sources  of 
happiness  and  prompt  it  to  right  courses  of 
action,  is  an  exalted  privilege  that  may  well  satisfy 
the  loftiest  ambition  of  one  who  seeks  to  promote 
the  welfare  of  his  fellow-beings,  purify  the  family, 
ennoble  the  race,  and  glorify  the  Maker  of    us  all. 


VII. 

TRAINING   IN   LANGUAGE 


Had  thought  been  all,  sweet  speech  had  been  denied. 

Edward  Young. 


The  dictionary  should  be  the  almost  constant  companion  of  the 

pupils  in  our  grammar  and  high  schools. 

John  B.  Peaslee. 

It  may,  without  hesitation,  be  affirmed  that  grammar  is  not  the 

stepping-stone,  but  the  finishing  instrument. 

C.  Marcel. 


Whatever  foreign   languages  a  young  man  meddles  with  (and 

the  more  he  knows  the  better),  that  which  he  should  critically  study 

and  labor  to  get  a  facility,  clearness,  and  elegancy  to  express  himself 

in  should  be  his  own,  and  to  this  purpose  he  should  be  daily  exercised 

in  it. 

John  Locke. 


VII. 
TRAINING    IN    LANGUAGE. 

Syllables  govern  the  world. — John  Selden. 

There  are  few  accomplishments  more  to  be  desired 
than  to  be  master  of  one's  own  language.  Social 
intercourse  is  largely  conditioned  on  the  ability  to 
express  one's  thoughts  in  choice  phraseology.  There 
can  be  no  satisfactory  interchange  of  ideas,  no  stimu- 
lating contact  of  mind  with  mind,  without  accurate, 
forcible  speech. 

Even  the  power  to  think  is  limited  by  the  ability 
to  clothe  thought  in  fitting  language.  When  the 
mind  reaches  its  boundary  of  expression  it  finds  its 
limit  of  thinking.  Thought  and  language  are  united 
as  soul  and  body.  Thought  is  the  vivifying  spirit 
which  clothes  itself  with  appropriate  expression. 
Each  new  idea  demands  its  suitable  word  and  each 
thought  its  sentence.     No  language  —  no  thought. 

Business  intercourse  of  necessity  makes  use  of 
language,  oral  and  written,  as  its  medium,  and  is 
facilitated  by  skill  and  hindered  by  a  lack  of  skill 
in  the  use  of  intelligible  expression.  Much  valuable 
time  is  lost,  many  misunderstandings  arise,  and  busi- 
ness intercourse  is  trying  to  the  patience  and  temper 
of  men,  by  ignorance  of  correct  modes  of  communi- 
cating one's  ideas  and  wishes. 


98  STUDIES  m  PEDAGOGY. 

Progress  in  human  thought,  in  poetry,  science,  or 
philosophy,  is  only  possible  where  there  is  a  corre- 
sponding progress  in  the  power  of  expression.  The 
growth  of  the  dictionary  is  one  index  of  the  progress 
of  a  race.  The  study  of  language  as  a  vehicle  of 
thought  with  a  view  to  its  employment  is  a  stimulus 
to  vigorous  thinking  ;  the  grammar  and  dictionary  are 
weapons  of  conquest. 

One  of  the  most  unsatisfactory  results  of  our  school 
work  to-day  is  the  meagre  attainment  of  the  pupils  in 
language.  Boys  and  girls  spend  months  and  years  in 
our  public  schools,  and  when  they  leave  spell  incor- 
rectly, speak  inaccurately,  and  write  with  great  diffi- 
culty. The  results  reached  are  by  no  means  always 
commensurate  with  the  time  spent  and  the  labor 
bestowed. 

This  is  due  in  large  part  to  faulty  methods  of 
instruction.  It  is  possible  in  the  time  which  the 
average  graduate  of  the  high  school  spends  in  study 
to  acquire  a  very  enviable  mastery  of  both  oral  and 
written  language.  This  is  not  a  matter  of  theory 
but  of  observation.  It  is  the  object  of  this  paper  to 
set  forth  in  brief  outline  what  may  be  done  for 
pupils  in  this  important  work. 

I.  Beginning  with  the  primary  grade,  when  the 
child  first  enters  school  he  should  be  encouraged  to 
talk  freely,  expressing  his  thoughts  on  such  things 
as  have  come  under  his  observation  at  home,  at 
school,  or  on  his  journeys  back  and  forth.  He  will 
"  think  as  a  child  and  speak  as  a  child,"  but  his 
thoughts  will  be  his  own,  and  under  the  guidance  of 


TRAINING   IN  LANGUAGE.  99 

his  teacher  he  will  make  rapid  progress  in  ability  to 
express  them  in  fitting  speech. 

2.  A  series  of  simple  object-lessons  on  common 
things,  arranged  with  a  view  to  directing  attention  to 
parts,  qualities,  uses,  etc.,  will  awaken  new  ideas  and 
give  occasion  for  new  words.  Thus  daily  addition 
may  be  made  to  his  vocabulary. 

3.  The  first  reading  lessons  should  be,  not  from 
book  or  chart,  but  from  blackboard.  The  lesson 
should  be  the  outgrowth  of  a  familiar  conversation 
about  some  interesting  object.  At  first  sentences 
made  by  the  teacher,  short,  simple,  and  expressive  of 
what  the  child  understands  and  has  interest  in,  may 
be  spoken,  then  written  upon  the  board,  and  after- 
ward read  by  the  child.  Afterwards  he  may  be  led 
to  talk,  and  his  sentences  may  be  copied  and  read. 

4.  Lessons  in  form  and  color  should  be  lessons  in 
language  also.  For  every  new  idea  which  is  awakened 
in  the  mind  the  teacher  should  suggest  at  once  the 
proper  word,  and  the  child  should  use  no  word  that 
does  not  immediately  suggest  to  his  mind  its  appro- 
priate idea. 

5.  Number  lessons  should  be  primarily  lessons  in 
observation  and  language.  First  the  idea,  then  the 
name  ;  first  the  thought,  then  the  expression.  Pro- 
cesses before  rules  ;  principles  before  formulas. 
Every  operation  should  be  accompanied  by  a  state- 
ment in  the  child's  own  language  of  what  is  done 
and  why.  Explanations,  not  formal  and  stereotyped, 
but  clear  and  concise,  should  accompany  the  work  at 
every  stage. 


iOO  STUDIES   IN  PEDAGOGY. 

6.  In  the  second  year  the  child  may  be  led  to 
observe  an  object,  such  as  a  cat,  dog,  bird,  and  tc 
give  an  orderly  description  of  it,  together  with  a 
brief  account  of  its  habits,  and  to  relate  simple 
stories  from  observation,  reading,  or  hearsay.  These 
oral  descriptions  by-and-by  give  way  to  written  ones, 
which  from  year  to  year  grow  in  completeness  and 
perfection  of  detail. 

7.  The  early  exercises  in  composition,  on  the  black- 
board, may  be  made  to  teach  the  proper  use  of  capital 
letters,  the  punctuation  marks,  the  structure  of  the 
sentence  and  of  the  paragraph,  and  some  of  the 
simpler  qualities  of    style. 

8.  The  spelling  lesson  is  an  invaluable  means  of 
language  training.  The  child  may  be  led  to  think 
of  groups  of  words,  names  of  familiar  objects,  of 
actions,  of  birds,  animals,  etc.  Each  new  word 
should  be  properly  pronounced,  neatly  written,  cor- 
rectly spelled  ;  should  be  defined  by  the  child  in  his 
own  language,  and  then  be  rightly  used  in  a  sen- 
tence. 

9.  A  very  delightful  entertainment  for  children 
may  be  had  by  leading  them  to  write  accounts  of 
imaginary  journeys,  into  which  they  weave  the 
information  gathered  from  the  geography  lesson, 
supplemented  by  what  is  gained  from  books  of 
travel,  newspapers,  home  instruction,  and,  whenever 
possible,  personal  experience.  Geography  furnishes 
exhaustless  materials  for  language  exercises.  The 
exercises  in  turn  fix  the  facts  in  the  memory  and 
turn  them  to  good  use  as  food  for  thought. 


TRAINING   IN  LANGUAGE.  lOI 

10.  The  reading  lessons  at  every  stage  of  the 
pupil's  progress  should  be  made,  in  the  best  sense, 
lessons  in  language.  This  may  be  done  by  leading 
him  to  give  a  statement  in  his  own  words  of  the 
thought  of  the  sentence  or  paragraph  read  ;  by  requir- 
ing a  summary  of  the  principal  thoughts  of  the  selec- 
tion ;  by  practice  in  paraphrasing  ;  by  turning  poetry 
into  prose  ;  by  making  a  topical  analysis  of  the  selec- 
tion read  ;  by  expressing  his  own  thoughts  awakened 
by  the  reading  ;  by  being  led  to  compare  the  styles 
of  the  different  authors  read.  The  reading  lesson, 
often  barren  of  interest  to  him  and  utterly  profitless, 
may  be  made  to  stimulate  thought  and  to  improve 
greatly  the  power  of  expression. 

The  frequent  reading  of  choice  specimens  of  good 
English,  and  especially  the  committing  of  them  to 
memory,  accompanied  with  clear  comprehension  of 
both  thought  and  style,  has  a  powerful  influence  in 
shaping  thoughts,  arousing  lofty  and  ennobling  feel- 
ings, and  in  giving  him  a  style  fluent,  forceful,  and 
elegant.  Perhaps  nothing  exerts  a  more  profound 
influence  upon  his  command  of  language  than  the 
books  he  reads.  Accustomed  to  read  attentively  and 
widely  books  suitable  to  his  age,  and  to  talk  of  what 
he  reads,  he  imbibes  the  spirit  of  the  author,  thinks 
his  thoughts,  is  stirred  with  his  motives,  and  almost 
of  necessity  models  his  style  after  that  of  his  favorite 
authors. 

11.  Instruction  and  drill  in  the  writing  of  letters 
of  business  and  friendship,  notes,  invitations,  bills, 
receipts,  telegrams,  etc.,  is  a  profitable  exercise  for 
children  of  say  ten  years  of  age. 


I02  STUDIES   IN  PEDAGOGY. 

12.  Technical  grammar,  once  a  fetich,  then  a  pariah, 
is  now  returning  to  its  rightful  place  as  an  invaluable 
servant  in  the  work  of  education.  Even  the  language 
lessons  which  have  supplanted  parsing  in  the  lower 
grades  have  been  obliged  to  borrow  from  the  science 
of  grammar  many  of  its  facts  and  principles. 

The  cultivated  man  needs  to  know  not  simply  the 
facts  of  his  mother  tongue,  but  the  philosophy  as 
well.  The  English  language,  although  not  highly 
inflected,  has  nevertheless  a  philosophy  of  its  own. 
Some  account  of  the  history  of  the  language,  the 
elements  that  enter  into  it,  changes  in  inflection, 
variations  in  meaning,  etc.,  awakens  in  young  minds 
a  lively  interest,  and  leads  to  a  more  critical  observa- 
tion and  to  the  improvement  of  their  own  speech. 

13.  Practical  drill  in  the  use  of  the  dictionary,  and 
a  careful  study  of  synonyms  until  the  habit  is  formed 
of  choosing  the  appropriate  word  for  each  idea,  is, 
when  it  does  not  degenerate  into  puerile  subtleties, 
invaluable  in  enriching  the  speech. 

14.  The  history  lesson  affords  a  special  opportunity 
for  language  drill  by  leading  to  an  analysis  of  events 
into  their  elements,  the  tracing  of  causes  and  effects, 
comparison  of  epochs,  eras,  movements,  nations,  and 
judgment  as  to  character.  The  free  discussions  and 
clash  of  opinions  aroused  by  the  teaching  of  history 
are  a  healthful  mental  stimulus  and  moral  tonic,  and 
may  call  out  the  best  powers  of  speech. 

15.  The  study  of  rhetoric  has  its  place  in  the 
chain.  Where  this  is  pursued  in  a  living  way  by 
the  study  of  authors  to  discover  qualities  of  style, 


TRAINING   IN  LANGUAGE.  1 03 

and  with  some  practice  in  composition  calling  for 
invention,  the  imagination  may  be  aroused  and  the 
critical  taste  awakened  and  considerable  skill  ac- 
quired. 

16.  The  study  of  English  literature,  embracing  the 
critical  examination  of  a  few  and  the  generous  read- 
ing of  many  books  with  an  inquiry  into  the  personal 
history  and  habits  of  authors,  an  analysis  and  com- 
parison of  their  writings,  with  frequent  exercises  in 
oral  and  written  criticism,  serves  to  kindle  an  enthu- 
siasm for  literature  and  a  striving  for  excellence  in 
the  use  of  language. 

17.  Written  examinations  in  the  various  subjects 
pursued  in  school  can  be  made  very  serviceable  as  a 
training  in  language  by  encouraging  the  student  to 
put  upon  paper,  in  good  shape,  without  special  prep- 
aration, what  he  knows  and  thinks  regarding  the 
topic  proposed  for  discussion.  This,  of  course,  is 
not  accomplished  where  the  examination  consists  in 
putting  down  in  bald  form  memoriter  answers  to  a 
few  questions  arranged  to  probe  the  memory. 

18.  Nothing  in  the  entire  range  of  common  school 
studies,  when  properly  taught  by  introspection  and 
observation,  is  better  fitted  to  be  made  a  helpful 
means  of  language  training  than  psychology.  When 
the  student  is  trained  to  examine  his  own  powers  of 
mind ;  to  compare  his  feelings  and  trace  them  to 
their  origin  and  follow  them  to  their  expression ;  to 
note  the  large  part  they  play  in  human  action,  and 
their  important  role  in  literature  ;  to  examine  his 
own  processes  of  thought,  and  to  discern  the  vital 


I04  STUDIES  LV  PEDAGOGY. 

relation  of  mental  energy  to  all  modifications  of  lan- 
guage, he  is  stimulated  and  helped  in  thinking,  and 
guided  in  his  communications  of  thought  in  a  very 
satisfactory  manner.  The  study  of  the  constitution 
and  operation  of  the  mind  itself  leads  to  the  very 
fountain  of  language. 

19.  Nothing  can  take  the  place,  as  a  means  of 
mental  culture  as  well  as  an  instrument  for  lin- 
guistic drill,  of  the  habit  of  original  composition. 
We  learn  to  write  by  writing.  Pupils  can  be  led 
to  choose  topics  suitable  to  their  stage  of  culture,  to 
gather  material  from  observation,  experience,  reflec- 
tion, conversation,  and  reading  ;  to  organize  the  mate- 
rial into  a  pleasing  and  forceful  essay.  Great  facility 
can  be  acquired  by  youth  of  twelve  to  fifteen  years 
of  age  in  this  kind  of  work. 

The  preparation  of  a  graduating  essay  can  be  made 
to  mark  an  epoch  in  a  student's  intellectual  history. 
The  sneer  often  hurled  at  these  performances  simply 
betrays  the  ignorance  of  the  sneerer. 

20.  This  brief  statement  of  the  subject  of  language 
training  in  the  public  schools  would  be  incomplete  if 
no  mention  were  made  of  the  study  of  some  foreign 
language.  Every  American  boy  or  girl  destined  to 
any  high  plane  of  culture  should  have  the  advantage 
of  studying  at  least  two  languages  in  addition  to 
English. 

The  classics  should  be  studied  for  the  purj^ose  of 
securing  that  peculiar  phase  of  mental  training  which 
experience  has  shown  can  be  attained  in  no  other 
possible  way.  It  imparts  a  finish  to  the  style  that 
is  inseparable  from  classical  study. 


TRAINING   IN  lANGUAGE.  I05 

In  the  study  of  the  classics,  in  order  that  the  best 
linguistic  results  may  be  reached,  a  larger  use  should 
be  made,  on  commencing  the  study,  of  the  so-called 
natural  method  until  the  pupil  has  acquired  a  vernac- 
ular familiarity  with  idioms  and  common  phrases. 

Pains  should  be  taken  to  awaken  in  the  mind  a 
lively  interest  in  the  author  and  his  subject,  and  to 
bring  the  student  en  rapport  with  the  writer. 

Translation  at  sight  should  be  practised  until  the 
habit  of  depending  so  largely  upon  the  dictionary,  as 
is  so  common,  is  broken  up. 

Reading  extended  passages,  such  as  an  entire 
oration  of  Cicero  in  Latin,  following  the  thought 
without  translation,  is  excellent. 

The  grammar  should  be  subordinate  to  the  litera- 
ture, and  the  Latin  lessons  should  be  less  a  parsing 
exercise  than  a  reading  exercise. 

One  of  the  most  marked  differences  between 
secondary  education  in  America  and  in  France 
and  Prussia,  for  example,  is  in  the  meagre  time  given 
in  our  schools  to  linguistic  study.  In  the  Prussian 
gymnasium  nine  years  are  given  to  Latin,  six  to 
Greek,  eight  to  French.  In  the  Reale  Schule,  Latin 
(with  fewer  weekly  exercises)  runs  through  nine 
years,  English  six,  French  eight.  In  the  French 
secondary  schools  Latin  has  seven  years,  Greek  five, 
English  or  German  ten.  In  our  preparatory  schools, 
from  which  students  graduate  at  about  the  same  age 
as  from  the  German  gymnasium,  the  average  time 
given  to  Latin  is  less  than  four  years,  ami  to  Greek 
about  two  and  a  half. 

(See  proceedings  of  N.  E.  A.,  1885,  page  207.) 


I06  STUDIES   IN  PEDAGOGY. 

Meantime  it  is  possible  to  acquire  a  practical 
working  knowledge  of  German  or  French,  with  some 
acquaintance  with  a  foreign  literature,  and  an  invalu- 
able habit  of  thinking  and  speaking  in  a  language 
different  from  the  vernacular. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  training  in  language  runs 
parallel  with  the  whole  course  of  study.  Every  attain- 
ment in  knowledge  in  any  direction,  and  every  advance 
in  power  of  thought,  and  every  higher  stage  reached 
in  feeling,  should  be  accompanied  by  a  corresponding 
increase  in  ability  to  speak  and  write.  Linguistic 
power  is  both  a  fruit  of  culture  and  a  means  of 
culture.  It  is  means  and  end.  It  is  in  itself  a 
most  worthy  end,  and  deserves  a  far  higher  place 
in  the  public  school  than  is  generally  accorded 
to  it. 

METHOD    OF    TEACHING    LATIN. 

In  1882,  while  principal  of  the  State  Normal  and 
Training  School  at  Potsdam,  New  York,  I  wrote  the 
following  sketch  of  a  method  of  teaching  Latin  which 
was  at  that  time  pursued  there  by  Mr.  Shumway. 

1.  With  his  class  of  about  thirty  beginners,  of 
from  ten  to  fourteen  years  of  age,  he  employs  the 
objective  method,  making  constant  appeal  to  the 
eye.  By  the  use  of  maps,  charts,  pictures,  and 
familiar  objects,  the  liveliest  interest  in  the  work 
of  the  classroom  is  maintained. 

2.  The  child  learns  to  associate  the  Latin  word 
directly  with  the  object.  This  is  the  natural  method 
of  learning  a  language.     The  symbol  and  the  thing 


TRAINING   IN  LANGUAGE.  IQJ 

symbolized  go  together.  The  thought  and  its  expres- 
sion are  learned  at  the  same  time.  Words  and  ideas 
are  inseparable.  Ordinarily  they  are  separated  by 
the  English  expression.  First  the  idea,  then  the 
English  term,  then  the  Latin  ;  which  is  artificial  and 
unnatural. 

3.  The  next  class,  of  about  thirty  (also  beginners), 
of  from  sixteen  to  twenty-five,  began  by  committing 
to  memory  the  first  chapter  of  Caesar.  Great  stress 
is  laid  in  both  classes  upon  absolute  accuracy  and 
perfect  familiarity  with  the  text  of  what  is  committed, 
thus  training  the  memory. 

4.  In  both  classes,  by  frequent  repetition  of  the 
text,  by  constant  question  and  answer,  the  ear  is 
trained  to  a  nice  discrimination  in  pronunciation, 
accent,  melody,  and  rhythm. 

5.  In  both  classes  great  use  is  made  of  the  black- 
board, the  students  being  required  to  write,  thus 
compelling  the  hand  to  do  service  with  the  eye  and 
the  ear. 

6.  Questions  based  upon  the  text,  and  admitting 
of  answers  in  the  words  of  the  text,  are  put  to  the 
student  from  the  very  first.  This  necessitates  the 
closest  attention  on  the  part  of  all.  The  student 
must  grasp  the  Latin  question.  He  must  think  in 
Latin.  He  must  feel  idiomatic  differences.  This, 
long  continued,  leads  him  deep  into  the  very  spirit 
of  the  ancient  Roman,  and  prepares  him  as  no  other 
process  can,  to  read  Latin  literature  appreciatingly. 

7.  The  practice  of  replying  to  the  questions  orally 
and  in  writing,  of  converting  prose  into  poetry,  the 


I08  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

oblique  into  the  direct  discussion,  and  vice  versa,  leads 
to  a  knowledge  of  composition,  practical  skill  in  the 
use  of  the  language,  and  a  keen  appreciation  of  the 
beauty  and  strength  of  classic  literature. 

8.  Grammar  is  learned  first  by  practice.  Use 
renders  grammatical  forms  familiar  to  the  student, 
so  that  error  offends  as  though  he  were  a  native. 
Changes  in  inflection  and  order  are  observed  as  they 
occur,  and  by  the  process  of  induction  the  laws  of 
change  are  reached.  The  student  is  taught  to  syste- 
matize and  tabulate  these  changes,  and  construct  his 
own  declensions  and  conjugations. 

9.  The  student  is  exercised  in  reading  easy  passages 
at  sight,  the  difficult  portions  being  at  first  omitted. 
This  gives  confidence  and  keeps  up  the  interest,  and 
by  necessitating  careful  attention  to  the  root  form 
and  the  inflectional  endings  fixes  these  in  the  mind 
and  greatly  facilitates  progress  in  reading. 

10.  Students  are  encouraged  to  put  Latin  questions 
to  the  teacher,  and  the  older  students  put  questions 
to  each  other  in  class,  all  mistakes  being  at  once  cor- 
rected either  by  the  pupils  or  the  teacher.  Those 
who  show  the  greatest  aptitude  are  called  on  to  con- 
duct the  recitation,  so  as  to  acquire  skill  and  confi- 
dence. 

11.  The  older  classes  study  the  grammar  very 
systematically  and  thoroughly,  devoting  special  and 
prolonged  attention  to  the  various  cases  and  their 
significance,  the  ablative  absolute,  the  subjunctive 
mood,  and  other  peculiarities  of  the  language. 

12.  New  words,   as  they  occur,   are  explained  in 


TRAINING  IN  lANGUAGE.  109 

Latin  by  their  derivation,  synonyms,  opposites,  or 
their  meaning  is  made  apparent  by  paraphrase,  expla- 
nation, or  illustration.  A  slavish  dependence  upon 
the  dictionary  is  thus  avoided. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  method  is  eclectic ; 
aiming  to  introduce  the  objective,  conversational, 
inductive  elements,  and  thus  to  modernize  the 
teaching  of  the  ancient  languages,  it  nevertheless 
clings  to  whatever  is  good  in  the  old  way.  The 
grammar  and  the  dictionary  are  not  cast  out,  mem- 
ory is  called  upon  to  do  her  royal  work,  and  no 
attempt  is  made  to  teach  a  language  in  ten  weeks. 
The  system  is  flexible,  and,  in  the  hands  of  com- 
petent teachers,  may  be  used  to  advantage  in  classes 
of  all  grades  of  advancement. 


VIII. 
TRAINING  THE   WILL 


He  who  is  firm  in  will  molds  the  world  to  himself. 

Goethe. 


The  unity  of  the  self  is  the  will.  The  will  is  the  man,  psycho- 
logically speaking. 

John  Dewey. 

Vital  moral  training  cannot  end  with  emotion  or  desires;    it  must 

issue  in  right  action. 

E.  E.  White. 

Motives  impel  the  will,  but  they  do  not  compel  it. 

Noah  Porter. 

In  good  education,  then,  in  genuine  instruction,  in  true  training, 
necessity  should  call  forth  freedom;  law,  self-determination;  external 
compulsion,  inner  freewill;    external  hate,  inner  love. 

Friedrich  Froebel. 

Educate  toward  a  knowledge  of  truth,  a  love  of  the  beautiful, 
a  habit  of  doing  the  good,  because  only  through  these  forms  can  the 
self-activity  continue  to  develop  progressively  in  this  universe.  These 
forms  —  the  true,  the  beautiful,  and  the  good  —  will  bring  the  indi- 
vidual into  union  with  his  fellowmen  through  all  eternity,  and  make 
him  a  participator  in  the  divine-human  work  of  civilization  and  culture, 

and  the  perfection  of  man  in  the  image  of  God. 

W.  T,  Harris. 


VIII. 
TRAINING   THE    WILL. 

Education  must  lay  stress  on  the  truth  that  nothing  in  the  world  has 
any  absolute  value  except  will  guided  by  the  right.  —  Rosenkranz. 

Man  as  an  efficient  agent  is  essentially  will.  What- 
ever may  be  his  intellectual  attainments  or  his  capac- 
ity for  feeling,  if  he  is  deficient  in  will-power  he  is 
like  a  locomotive  without  steam,  or  a  watch  without 
a  mainspring.  The  will  is  the  dynamo  of  the  soul, 
the  source  of  motor  energy.  And  yet  the  will  is  not 
something  apart  from  the  soul  :  it  is  rather  an  all- 
important  part  of  the  soul.  It  has  indeed  well  been 
called  "the  soul  in  action."  It  is  concerned  in  every 
conscious  act  of  mind  or  body.  The  babe  that 
stretches  forth  its  tiny  hand  to  grasp  the  toy,  or 
follows  with  its  eyes  the  moving  light,  does  so  by  an 
act  of  will.  To  cultivate  the  soul  in  any  direction  is 
in  a  sense  to  train  the  will. 

Nevertheless,  it  is  not  without  significance  that  we 
speak  of  man  as  having  intellect,  sensibility,  and  will. 
This  trichotomite  division  is  suggestive  of  reality,  of 
distinction,  and  of  the  possibility  not  only  of  regard- 
ing the  will  apart  from  the  intellect  and  the  feelings, 
but  also  of  making  it  a  special  object  of  care  in  the 
work  of  education.  To  train  the  will  is  not  the  same 
thing  as  to  train  the  intellect.     Will-power  is  by  no 

113 


I  14  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

means  synonymous  with  learnmg.  One  may  be  a 
scholar  and  not  have  a  cultured  will.  One  may  have 
many  of  the  characteristics  of  a  strong  will  without 
great  learning.  It  is  possible  to  secure  a  seeming 
development  of  the  intellect  at  the  expense  of  the 
will.  So-called  education  may  thus  be  purchased  at 
an  immense  cost. 

In  order  to  see  the  full  significance  of  the  will  in 
its  relations  to  human  life,  and  to  understand  the 
method  of  its  development,  it  may  be  well  to  attempt 
a  fuller  definition. 

We  sometimes  think  of  will  as  nearly  or  quite 
synonymous  with  force  or  energy.  Will,  in  this 
sense,  is  closely  related  to  physical  vigor.  The  pri 
mary  basis  of  all  will-power  is,  or  at  least  the  condi- 
tion of  its  manifestation  is,  animal  life.  The  will  as 
a  physical  agent  is  evolved  in  the  laboratory  of  the 
stomach  ;  it  is  proportioned  to  the  amount  of  food 
eaten  and  assimilated.  There  is  a  modicum  of  truth 
in  the  doctrine  of  the  materialist,  that  a  "man  is 
what  he  eats."  This  highest  psychical  force  draws 
its  supplies  in  part  from  physical  sources.  This  is 
not  to  identify  will-power  and  physical  force  :  it  only 
recognizes  the  intimate  relationship  between  them. 
The  mind  thinks  with  the  brain,  but  the  brain  is  not 
therefore  the  mind.  The  physical  force  generated 
by  a  strong  body  and  a  healthy  regime  are  the  crude 
material  out  of  which  the  soul  fashions  its  most  deli- 
cate impulses  and  forges  its  most  irresistible  engines. 
The  developed  will  assumes  sway  over  the  body,  and, 
as  in  the  case  of  John  Calvin,  may  long  endure  and 
accomplish  great  deeds  in  a  diseased  and  feeble  body. 


TRAINING    THE    WILL. 


115 


Another  phase  of  will  is  persistence.  The  forces 
of  life  manifesting  themselves  in  psychical  activity 
tend  very  speedily  to  flow  in  certain  fixed  directions, 
and  to  persist  in  these  directions.  The  child  has  its 
favorite  sports,  which  it  pursues  with  tireless  energy, 
and  the  will-power  thus  expressed  grows  by  its  own 
activity.  It  is  thus  that  habit  comes  to  exert  so  po- 
tent an  influence  over  the  will.  That  which  we  are 
accustomed  to  do  we  do  with  comparative  ease  and 
pleasure.  But  when  life's  energy  takes  a  given 
direction  from  force  of  habit  rather  than  deliberative 
choice,  it  becomes  a  sort  of  inertia,  a  low  order  of 
will-power. 

One  may  be  at  the  mercy  of  his  passions,  all  his 
powers  being  swayed  by  ambition,  envy,  jealousy, 
rage,  hatred,  avarice,  lust,  or  by  mere  caprice.  Cati- 
line is  an  example  of  a  man  of  enormous  will-power 
consecrated  to  evil. 

When  we  speak  of  will  culture  as  an  aim  of  the 
schools,  we  mean  by  will  something  far  higher  than 
mere  animal  or  physical  force,  flowing  blindly  in 
certain  accustomed  channels,  or  swayed  by  base  pas- 
sions. We  mean  a  self-conscious,  a  self-directed 
force,  spiritual  in  its  essence,  multiform  in  its  modes 
of  manifestation,  steady  in  its  operation,  seeking 
always  the  highest  aims,  actuated  by  the  purest  mo- 
tives, and,  under  the  sway  of  reason  and  conscience, 
accomplishing  the  noblest  ends  and  mightiest  results. 
Columbus  searching  for  a  new  continent,  Kepler  ^ 
seeking  to  formulate  the  laws  of  the  motion  of  the 
planets,  Livingstone  exploring  the  Dark  Continent, 


I  1 6  STUDIES  IN  FED  A  GOGY. 

Grant  subduing  a  rebellion,  Sumner  striving  for  the 
overthrow  of  slavery,  De  Lesseps  constructing  a  ship- 
canal,  Edison  applying  electricity  to  practical  pur- 
poses, Frances  Willard  working  for  the  cause  of 
temperance,  and  Bergh  struggling  for  the  prevention 
of  cruelty  to  animals,  are  examples  of  the  sort  of 
will-power  for  which  we  have  urgent  need. 

All  the  pupils  of  the  schools  cannot  become 
equally  eminent  in  the  display  of  great  virtues,  and 
it  is  neither  necessary  nor  wise  to  hold  before  them 
or  before  ourselves  the  ideal  of  fame  or  publicity, 
or  even  extraordinary  achievement.  What  we  do 
well,  however,  to  remember  is  that  the  same  high 
quality  which  we  call  will-power  is  demanded  as  well 
in  private  as  in  public,  in  the  ordinary  as  well  as 
extraordinary  circumstances  of  life.  The  teacher  of 
a  country  school  seeking  to  interest,  instruct,  and 
train  to  useful  manhood  and  womanhood  his  little 
flock,  the  captain  of  a  company  of  soldiers  fighting 
Indians  on  the  frontier,  the  pioneer  missionary  lay- 
ing the  foundations  of  a  Christian  church,  the  con- 
ductor of  a  railroad  train  striving  to  secure  the  safety 
and  comfort  of  his  passengers  and  the  rights  of  his 
employers,  the  village  physician  in  his  warfare  with 
disease,  the  widow  struggling  to  support  her  father- 
less children,  the  youth  conquering  for  himself  an 
honorable  place  amidst  the  fierce  competitions  of 
modern  life,  the  private  citizen  working  with  voice 
and  pen  for  the  promotion  of  the  public  weal,  the 
nurse  watching  by  the  sick,  the  laborer  doomed  to  a 
life  of  toil  and  a  struggle  with  poverty,  all  alike  have 


TRAINING    THE    WILL.  1  1  7 

need  of  will-power  of  a  high  order.  There  is  no 
place  so  high  and  no  place  so  low  as  not  to  call  it 
into  requisition.  Man's  very  position  in  the  scale  of 
being  is  determined  by  the  presence  or  defect  of  this 
unconquerable  energy,  wisely  directed  to  legitimate 
ends. 

How  shall  we  secure  the  development  of  this  regal 
power,  this  masterful  spirit,  this  preeminently  human 
element } 

First.  We  must  make  use  of  all  means  whatso- 
ever that  tend  to  create,  conserve,  or  economize  the 
vital  forces.  Many  children,  both  at  home  and  at 
school,  become  feeble  in  body  and  weak  in  will  from 
a  neglect  of  observing  the  ordinary  laws  of  health. 
Teachers  are  sometimes  careless  of  the  proper  heat- 
ing, lighting,  and  ventilating  of  their  schoolrooms, 
and  thus  become  responsible  for  the  undermining  of 
the  child's  health  and  the  destruction  of  his  will- 
power. The  abolition  of  the  out-of-door  recess  with- 
out any  proper  substitute  for  it  —  thus  depriving  the 
pupils  of  a  change  of  attitude,  relief  of  mind,  abund- 
ance of  fresh  air,  contact  with  nature,  exhilarating 
exercise,  spontaneity  of  action  —  is  an  innovation  of 
doubtful  propriety  and  fraught  with  possible  evil 
consequences  of  no  slight  magnitude. 

Some  form  of  physical  exercise  is  essential  to  the 
child's  well-being.  Excursions  into  the  woods,  brisk 
walks,  rambles  by  the  brookside,  climbing  of  hills, 
rowing,  coasting,  skating,  if  not  excessive,  are  all 
admirable  means  of  invigorating  the  system,  stimu- 
lating the  appetite,  digestion,  and  food  assimilation. 


I  I  8  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

Ordinary  school  life  may  be  too  confining  for  the 
young,  and  too  repressive.  It  aims  to  secure  disci- 
pline not  by  properly  controlling  and  directing  en- 
ergy, but  by  diminishing  it.  One  might  as  well  seek 
to  control  the  movement  of  machinery  not  by 
regulating  the  throttle-valve,  but  by  extinguishing 
the  fire.  What  is  needed  in  the  schoolroom  is  not 
enforced  quiet,  but  regulated  energy. 

Much  of  the  energy  of  children  is  wasted,  not  in 
play,  but  in  wantonness,  quarreling,  purposeless  exer- 
cises. The  same  force  that  the  elephant  uses  in 
crushing  his  way  through  a  thicket  would  enable  him 
to  bear  upon  his  back  many  a  useful  burden  along 
the  highway.  The  force  of  the  stream  that  once 
leaped  and  tumbled  in  wasteful  wildness  down  the 
Falls  of  Saint  Anthony,  now  guided  in  proper  chan- 
nels turns  the  vast  machinery  at  Minneapolis,  con- 
verting wheat  into  flour  and  prairies  into  gardens. 
The  vast  expenditure  made  by  European  nations  in 
armies  worse  than  useless  would,  if  wisely  directed, 
add  year  by  year  enormously  to  the  daily  comfort 
and  elevation  of  their  people,  and  the  rapid  accumu- 
lation of  all  the  products  of  an  enlightened  civiliza- 
tion. The  secret  of  wealth  is  the  economy  of  pro- 
duction—  the  wise  direction  of  energy.  It  costs  as 
much  to  construct  a  gun  as  a  plow,  to  make  a  sword 
as  a  pruning-hook,  to  build  a  distillery  as  a  mill.  A 
saloon  is  more  expensive  than  a  meat  market,  and  a 
standing  army  costs  more  than  a  system  of  universal 
education. 

So  the  native  energy  of  the  child  that  runs  to  waste, 


TRAINING    THE    WILL. 


119 


or  that  expands  itself  in  mischiief,  cruelty,  or  wicked- 
ness, only  needs  to  be  turned  into  right  channels 
to  become  fruitful  of  all  high  and  noble  results. 
Attention,  punctuality,  regularity,  persistence,  deci- 
sion, patience,  endurance,  fortitude,  courage,  are  so 
many  modes  of  will,  so  many  channels  of  usefulness 
into  which  the  exhaustless  streams  of  child-life  may 
be  poured.  The  melting  snows  that  rush  in  mad 
torrents  down  the  mountain-side,  or  lose  themselves 
in  the  turbid  river  or  lifeless  sea,  when  guided  by  the 
hand  of  man  enrich  the  arid  plains  of  Utah  and 
make  the  wilderness  to  blossom  as  the  rose. 

The  child  is  stimulated  to  a  healthful  exercise  of 
will  by  personal  example,  proper  instruction,  wise 
direction,  kindly  encouragement,  suitable  admonition, 
faithful  warning,  and  just  punishment.  Will-power 
is  not  strictly  a  fixed  quantity  dependent  wholly 
upon  physical  conditions.  It  is  a  moral  force  and  a 
variable  quantity  susceptible  of  very  great  increase. 
Thomas,  standing  like  a  rock  at  Chickamauga,  in- 
spired all  his  army  with  heroic  courage  that  success- 
fully resisted  the  fiercest  assaults  of  the  Confederate 
army. 

Second.  Will  culture  involves  a  Hghtful  care  of 
the  sensibilities  —  the  forces  that  move  the  will.  The 
will  follows  the  lead  of  the  heart.  Men  pursue  with 
energy  that  which  they  love.  Erasmus,  impelled  by 
a  love  of  learning,  Luther  by  enthusiasm  for  reform, 
Lincoln  by  an  all-absorbing  patriotism,  put  forth  her- 
culean efforts  in  the  prosecution  of  their  lifework. 
History  and   the  annals   of  private  life    as   well  are 


1  20  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

replete  with  examples  of  sustained  energy  devoted 
to  the  attainment  of  worthy  ends.  Familiarity  with 
these  serves  often  to  kindle  in  young  minds  aspira- 
tions that  burst  into  flame  and  warm  into  action  all 
the  energies  of  the  soul.  The  difference  between 
Grant  the  unsuccessful  business  man  and  Grant  the 
greatest  general  of  his  age  was  the  difference  be- 
tween a  man  drifting  without  a  plan  and  a  man  con- 
centrating all  the  energies  of  his  being  and  all  the 
resources  of  a  mighty  nation  for  the  accomplishment 
of  a  heroic  purpose. 

Children  are  actuated  by  a  great  variety  of  mo- 
tives, and  one  of  the  chief  functions  of  the  teacher 
is  to  call  into  proper,  healthful  exercise  the  many 
motives  of  which  they  are  susceptible.  All  the  appe- 
tites, desires,  affections,  and  emotions  of  the  adult 
slumber  in  the  bosom  of  childhood.  Not  all  of  them 
are  appropriate  to  childhood  ;  none  of  them  should  be 
prematurely  aroused.  We  are  to  avoid  precocity  as 
a  disease.  But  we  are  more  likely  to  err  on  the 
other  side,  and  either  allow  the  child's  heart  to  lie 
fallow,  or  at  most  to  call  into  activity  only  a  few  of 
the  many  motive-powers  that  are  latent  there.  There 
are  teachers  that  rule  by  the  rod,  and  appeal  almost 
wholly  to  fear ;  others  evoke  shame,  others  vanity, 
and  others  emulation.  This,  if  not  a  base  develop- 
ment, is  at  least  a  one-sided  one.  Think  of  the 
many  sentiments  that  can  exist  in  the  child's  heart. 
Love  of  approbation,  desire  of  society,  love  of  knowl- 
edge, truthfulness,  love  of  the  beautiful,  desire  of 
success,   consciousness    of   power,  self-respect,   sym 


TRAINING    THE    WILL.  12 1 

pathy,  benevolence,  generosity,  filial  and  fraternal 
affection,  patriotism,  loyalty,  fidelity,  reverence, —  all 
these  and  many  more  can  be  called  into  gentle  exer- 
cise and  forceful  activity.  Under  their  influence  his 
whole  being  may  be  aroused,  and  his  will  be  strongly 
and  beneficently  impelled.  Many  a  boy  has  been 
changed  from  a  mischief-maker  and  a  truant  into  an 
obedient  and  industrious  student  by  being  taken  into 
his  teacher's  confidence  and  made  to  feel  that  he  was 
respected  and  trusted.  Others  have  been  reclaimed 
by  being  employed  in  some  congenial,  useful  occupa- 
tion. Nothing  can  take  the  place  of  the  careful 
study  of  the  child's  heart. 

Men  have  long  and  justly  held  in  derision  that 
system  of  agriculture  at  the  South  which  sought 
year  after  year  to  extort  from  the  soil  but  one  kind 
of  crop,  whether  cotton  or  tobacco.  The  evil  was 
surpassed  only  by  the  still  more  pitiable  social  system 
that  subjected  a  race  of  human  beings  to  the  dom- 
ination of  one  sole  motive,  fear  of  the  lash.  What 
shall  be  said  of  a  system  of  education  which,  assum- 
ing to  develop  the  boundless  possibilities  of  a  human 
soul,  calls  into  action  the  fewest  possible  number  of 
its  capacities  of  feeling  and  of  its  motive  forces  .■* 

Third.  The  moral  being  is  one  who  out  of  all  the 
variety  of  motives  by  which  he  may  be  actuated 
yields  himself  voluntarily  only  to  the  highest.  The 
enlightened  reason  chooses  between  motives  and 
gives  the  preference  to  the  best.  Ambition  and  jus- 
tice, desire  of  wealth  and  pity,  love  of  approbation  and 
truthfulness,  love  of  family  and  patriotism,  all  ^likoj 


122  ST  UDIES  IM  FED  A  GOGY. 

each  in  its  place  and  degree,  are  honorable.  They 
may  coincide  or  they  may  conflict,  and  the  test  of 
high  character  is  the  preference  which  is  shown  them 
in  the  decisive  moment.  The  highest  motive  is  a 
conscientious  regard  for  truth  and  duty,  "  love  for 
the  right  as  God  gives  us  to  know  the  right." 

The  goal  of  culture  is  freedom.  In  its  ultimate 
analysis  will  is  supreme.  It  is  self-moved.  Amid 
all  the  complexity  of  motive  forces  that  act  upon  it, 
it  yields  itself  of  its  own  volition  to  the  motive  of  its 
own  choice.  The  will  is  regal,  autocratic.  Will  cul- 
ture is  the  training  that  results  from  the  habit  of 
instinctive,  ready  choice  of  the  highest  aims,  and  of 
unswerving  devotion  to  the  accomplishment  of  its 
desire.     Will  culture  is  training  in  choices. 

Training  the  will  to  freedom  can  be  done  only  in 
an  atmosphere  of  freedom.  The  child  must  be  early 
accustomed  to  self-reliance.  He  must  make  his  own 
choices,  and  learn  the  sweetness  and  solemnity  of 
liberty  by  self-directed  activity. 

Special  emphasis  should  be  laid  upon  the  sin  of 
"breaking  the  will,"  so  strongly  and  so  justly  con- 
demned by  Kant.  Corporal  punishment,  ridicule, 
sarcasm,  humiliation,  shame,  or  any  infliction  that 
degrades  the  child  in  his  own  esteem,  is  to  be 
scrupulously  avoided. 

On  the  other  hand,  infinite  pains  needs  to  be  taken 
to  awaken  a  keen  sense  of  self-respect,  a  profound 
consciousness  of  the  personal  dignity  that  attaches 
to  every  human  being,  and  exalted  aspirations  after 
noble  pursuits,  scholarly  attainments,   and  excellent 


TRAINING    THE    WILL.  12$ 

character.     In  our  treatment  of  children  psychologic 
optimism  is  better  than  pessimism. 

The  vast  energies  at  work  in  human  society  devel- 
oping our  resources,  molding  our  laws,  shaping  our 
industries,  organizing  and  directing  our  social,  polit- 
ical, and  religious  forces,  should  be  under  the  abso- 
lute domination  of  conscience.  The  only  safeguard 
that  the  republic  can  have  against  anarchy,  riot,  de- 
falcation, partisan  strife,  the  clash  of  race  and  class, 
and  ultimate  ruin  of  peace,  prosperity,  and  liberty 
itself  is  that  kind  of  will  culture  that  seeks  to  en- 
throne reason  and  conscience  in  the  bosom  of  every 
pupil  in  the  common  schools. 


IX. 

TRAINING   TO    LEARN. 


Any  piece  of  knowledge  which  the  pupil  has  himself  acquired, 
any  problem  which  he  has  himself  solved,  becomes  by  virtue  of  the 
conquest  much  more  thoroughly  his  than  it  could  else  be. 

Herbert  Spencer. 

Inasmuch  as  the  child  is  self-active,  and  grows  only  through  the 
exercise  of  his  self-activity,  education  consists  entirely  in  leading 
the  child  to  do  what  develops  this  power  of  doing.  Any  help  that 
does  not  help  the  pupil  to  help  himself  is  excessive. 

W.  T.  Harris. 

The  idea  which  I  have  endeavored  to  give  of  the  true  relation  of 
the  pupil  to  the  teacher,  and  which  represents  the  former  as  carrying 
on  his  own  self-tuition  under  the  wise  superintendence  of  the  latter, 
is  of  course  not  new.  Nothing  strictly  new  can  be  said  about  educa- 
tion. The  elements  of  it  may  easily  be  found  in  the  principles  and 
practice  of  Ascham,  Montaigne,  Ratich,  Milton,  Comenius,  Locke, 
Rousseau,  Pestalozzi,  Jacotot,  and  Herbert  Spencer.  Those  who  are 
interested  in  the  subject  may  find  an  account  of  the  views  and  methods 
of  these  eminent  men  in  Mr.  Quick's  valuable  little  book  on  Educa- 
tional Reformers. 

Joseph  Payne. 


IX. 
TRAINING    TO    LEARN. 

The  essential  act  in  acquiring  knowledge  is  the  act  of  learning,  and 
this  is  the  pupil's  act.  —  E.  E.  White. 

In  the  work  of  education — ^ whereby  the  child 
becomes  man,  exchanging  weakness  for  strength, 
ignorance  for  knowledge,  awkwardness  for  skill, 
simplicity  and  inexperience  for  wisdom  and  con- 
firmed character  —  many  factors  conspire.  The 
child  grows  spontaneously.  Just  as  the  acorn 
becomes  the  oak  the  babe  becomes  adult,  passing 
through  the  various  stages  of  infancy  and  youth  to 
maturity  by  virtue  of  its  inherent  energies  and  man- 
ifest destiny.  The  parent  may  aid  this  process  of 
growth  and  development  by  warding  off  evils  and 
affording  proper  supplies  of  food,  clothing,  care,  and 
guidance.  Associates  at  home  and  abroad  lend  a 
hand  in  unconscious  tutelage.  Nature,  with  all  its 
varied  forces,  performs  no  small  share  in  bringing 
the  youth  to  a  knowledge  of  himself,  his  powers 
and  limitations,  privileges  and  obligations.  Even 
the  dullest  must  heed  her  warnings  and  remember 
her  teachings. 

The  chief  agent  in  the  great  transformation,  how- 
ever, must  be  the  child  himself.  All  education  is, 
in  its  ultimate  analysis,  self-education.     The  energy 


128  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

which  issues  in  growth  or  assimilates  knowledge 
must  originate  in  self  and  be  self-directed.  All  the 
varied  helps  of  home,  school,  and  nature  are  but 
helps  which  the  child  must  use.  Like  crutches, 
they  are  available  only  to  him  who  has  purpose 
and  physical  strength  to  handle  them.  The  school, 
with  all  its  appliances,  libraries,  laboratories,  and 
teachers,  is  but  an  opportunity,  valuable  only  in 
jjroportion  as  the  pupil  makes  use  of  it.  The 
teacher  may  do  much  for  him  by  a  wise  and  per- 
sistent scheme  of  training,  so  that  each  and  all  of 
the  powers,  physical,  mental,  moral,  may  be  com- 
pletely, symmetrically,  and  harmoniously  developed. 
But  this  can  be  done  only  by  the  pupil's  consent 
and  hearty  cooperation.  The  teacher  may  impart 
instruction,  not  only  giving  him  facts  and  truths, 
but  seeing,  as  well,  that  he  commits  to  memory  large 
bodies  of  knowledge  as  set  forth  in  books,  and  yet  fall 
far  short  of  securing  the  best  results  aimed  at  in  the 
process  of  education.  Instruction  is  good  as  far  as 
it  goes. 

Education  is  not  only  an  individual,  personal  work, 
calling  for  the  highest  exercise  of  selfhood,  but  it 
is  a  lifelong  process,  requiring  of  the  pupil  that  he 
shall  be  ever  learning.  His  tasks  are  never  done. 
Life's  problems  cease  only  with  the  grave,  and  the 
most  diligent  student  finds  the  fleeting  years  all  too 
short  to  enable  him  to  exhaust  any  branch,  however 
narrow,  of  human  inquiry. 

The  great  function  of  the  teacher's  high  office  is 
to  cause  his  jDupil  to  learn.      His  finished  work  is  not 


TRAINING    TO   LEARN.  129 

a  walking  encyclopaedia,  nor  an  intellectual  athlete, 
but  a  student,  an  earnest,  humble  learner.  If  he 
can  so  do  his  work  that  his  pupil  becomes  a  diligent 
seeker  after  truth,  finding  in  the  pursliit  itself  a  sat- 
isfaction second  only  to  that  which  comes  from  a 
conscious  grasp  of  the  eternal  verities  of  nature,  he 
has  performed  a  good  work. 

What  then  is  meant  by  causing  a  pupil  to  learn .-' 
I  use  the  expression  in  a  somewhat  unusual  sense, 
perhaps,  and  should  consequently  explain  precisely 
what  I  mean  by  it.  By  way  of  negative  let  it  be 
said  that  it  does  not  mean  having  him  commit  to 
memory  stipulated  tasks.  A  thing  is  not  necessa- 
rily learned  because  it  is  committed  to  memory. 
A  pupil  may  successfully  memorize  the  lesson 
assigned  him  in  a  foreign  language  of  which  he 
does  not  understand  a  word.  Some  teachers  would, 
and  rightly  too,  have  their  students  learn  by  heart 
portions  of  Caesar  as  the  basis  or  beginning  of  their 
study  of  Latin.  Montaigne  was  wont  to  declare  that 
to  "know  a  thing  by  heart  is  not  to  know  it."  With- 
out endorsing  this  extreme  view,  or  even  calling  in 
question  the  very  great  importance  of  memorizing, 
it  should  be  emphasized  that  merely  memorizing  is 
not  all  of  learning,  and  is  indeed  a  very  small  part  of 
the  whole  process.  Again,  causing  to  learn  does  not 
mean  what  is  often  conveyed  by  the  word  instruct- 
ing. To  instruct  is  to  lead  the  pupil  to  understand 
what  the  teacher  presents.  The  instructor  assigns 
lessons,  calls  for  recitations,  questions,  illustrates, 
explains,  repeats,  tests,  and  examines  until  he  feels 


130  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

assured  that  the  given  subject  has  been  understood 
by  the  pupil,  and  so  in  a  certain  sense  mastered. 
This  process  is  a  higher,  nobler  one  than  that  previa 
ously  described.  But  even  this  may  come  far  short 
of  the  end  to  be  desired,  for  the  teacher  takes  the 
initiative,  prepares  the  lesson,  sets  the  task,  conducts 
the  tests,  and  thus  supervises  the  v/ork  in  all  its 
extent.  The  pupil  may  remain  largely  passive. 
Like  a  sundial  he  points  the  time  by  a  shadow  on 
his  face  only  so  !long  as  the  sun  shines.  Fenelon, 
with  all  his  learnmg,  eloquence,  skill,  and  devotion, 
worked  wonders  lor  his  royal  pupil,  but  it  must  be 
said  that  his  work  was  a  splendid  failure.  What  a 
youth  needs  is  not  a  Mentor  who,  while  guiding, 
stimulating,  and  instructing  him,  absorbs  his  will 
and  overwhelms  his  personality.  Education  should 
conserve  the  individuality  of  the  pupil.  Perfected 
selfhood  is  the  goal  of  culture. 

I.  The  first  fundamental  condition,  then,  upon 
which  rests  the  work  of  causing  to  learn,  is  a 
supreme  regard  for  the  child's  individuality.  His 
personality  should  be  regarded  as  sacred  and  invi- 
olable. Froebel  was  undoubtedly  right  in  assigning 
so  large  a  place  to  the  child's  dignity  of  person. 
He  indeed  saw  in  him  — according  to  his  pantheistic 
notions — a  manifestation  of  divinity  which  led  to 
the  kindred  error  of  supposing  him  to  be  prone 
only  to  good.  Unfortunately  this  optimism  is 
cruelly  shaken  in  the  practical  contact  with  child- 
nature.  Nevertheless,  the  conclusion  drawn  by 
Froebel  that  education  is  chiefly  growth  and  must 


TRAINING    TO  LEARN.  131 

be  characterized  by  freedom  and  spontaneity  is  a 
great  truth. 

No  teacher  ever  succeeds  who  seeks  to  subdue  the 
child's  will,  to  curb  unduly  his  natural  propensities, 
to  ignore  his  tastes,  to  violate  his  wishes,  or  to  disre- 
gard his  own  peculiar  endowments.  No  two  children 
are  alike  in  their  capacities  ;  no  two  are  fitted  to  fill 
precisely  the  same  sphere  in  life.  Each  one,  if  left 
free,  has  his  own  point  of  view,  and  will  have  his 
own  peculiar  conception  of  the  universe.  This 
individuality  is  ordinarily  recognized  at  home,  and 
spontaneity  is  encouraged.  Society  is  compelled  to 
consider  it,  and  every  individual  carves  for  himself 
his  own  career.  It  is  chiefly  in  school  that  the  pro- 
cess of  restraint,  suppression,  domination,  subduing 
is  too  much  practised.  The  grim  spectre  authority 
has  erected  his  awful  throne  in  the  schoolroom,  and 
upon  his  dread  altar  multitudes  of  innocent  victims 
are  daily  sacrificed.  Fortunately  for  humanity  the 
instinct  of  selfhood  is  too  strong  to  be  conquered, 
and  children,  some  by  escaping  from  school  at  an 
early  age,  some  by  open  revolt,  some  by  apparent 
submission  and  real  rebellion,  and  some  by  force 
of  necessity,  in  after  years  of  free  activity,  either 
avoid,  resist,  or  in  part  overcome  the  benumbing 
effects  of  the  so-called  discipline  and  training  of  the 
schools. 

Teachers  should  not  tyrannize  over  their  pupils, 
but  should  treat  them  with  that  respect  which  is 
due  to  free  beings.  We  can  make  of  the  child  a  life- 
long learner  only  as  we  begin  by  calling  into  exercise, 


132  STUDIES  IN   PEDAGOGY. 

from  his  earliest  infancy,  that  innate  energy  which 
expresses  itself  in  its  own  way,  chooses  its  own 
objects  upon  which  to  exert  itself,  and  combines 
them  after  ways  of  its  own.  This  can  be  done 
without  pampering  wilfulness,  or  developing  self- 
hood into  selfishness  or  offensive  egoism.  Liberty 
is  not  license,  it  is  self-imposed  law.  The  child 
must  learn  because  he  wills  to  learn.  His  knowl- 
edge should  be  chiefly  that  which  he  has  wrested 
from  nature  by  his  own  efforts. 

2.  Closely  akin  to  this  reverence  for  the  right  of 
selfhood  is  another  prerequisite  to  success  in  making 
of  the  child  a  learner,  namely,  the  conservation  and 
culture  of  curiosity.  It  is  no  more  true  that  sparks 
fly  upward  and  that  water  seeks  its  level  than  that 
children  seek  after  knowledge.  The  mind  was  made 
for  truth.  Hunger  is  the  divinely  appointed  prece- 
dent of  food-taking,  the  one  condition  of  nourish- 
ment. No  hunger,  no  assimilation.  Curiosity  is  to 
the  mind  what  hunger  is  to  the  body.  This  divinely 
implanted  force  is  the  mainspring  of  action  that 
impels  all  the  mental  forces  and  energizes  all  intel- 
lectual processes.  What  has  the  desire  of  knowledge 
not  wrought .''  It  has  impelled  the  navigator  through 
unknown  seas,  allured  the  explorer  through  untrod- 
den continents,  across  dreary  deserts,  over  pathless 
mountains  and  through  trackless  forests.  It  has 
stimulated  invention,  reared  observatories,  collected 
museums,  founded  colleges,  established  libraries,  and 
has  laid  under  contribution  the  heavens  above  us,  the 
earth  about  us,  and  the  depths  of  the  ocean.     Man  is 


TRAINING    TO   LEARN.  133 

never  satisfied  so  long  as  there  remain  any  secrets  of 
mind  or  matter,  history,  science,  or  rehgion  which  he 
has  not  explored. 

To  know  is  his  birthright,  to  learn  is  his  preroga- 
tive. What  is  true  of  the  race  is  measurably  true  of 
each  individual  of  the  race.  It  is  not  only  his  duty 
and  his  right  to  know,  but  it  is  his  privilege  and 
pleasure  as  well.  To  know  belongs  to  man  by  virtue 
of  his  manhood.  The  desire  to  know  is  among  the 
earliest  manifestations  of  conscious  life.  The  open 
eye,  the  outstretched  hand  of  the  infant  is  soon  fol- 
lowed by  the  listening  ear  and  the  inquiring  tongue 
of  the  child.  To  guard  this  impulse  from  injury,  to 
gratify  without  dulling  it,  to  stimulate  without  over- 
burdening it,  to  direct  without  attempting  to  tyran- 
nize over  it,  to  keep  it  ever  eager,  vigilant,  healthy 
vs  a  great  part  of  the  teacher's  work. 

The  child's  curiosity  will  of  necessity  be  directed 
largely  by  its  innate  tendencies.  One  child  is  curi- 
ous after  causes,  another  after  means  ;  one  delights 
in  birds,  another  in  flowers  ;  one  loves  nature, 
another  books  ;  one  revels  in  stories  of  adventure, 
another  busies  himself  with  the  laws  of  perspective 
and  the  fascinating  mysteries  of  color,  while  yet 
another  finds  pleasure  in  mathematical  problems  and 
the  laws  that  underlie  them. 

It  may  be  asserted  with  great  confidence  that 
eagerness  to  know,  springing  from  the  child's  inner- 
most nature,  is  absolutely  essential  to  constitute  him 
in  any  true  sense  a  learner ;  that  this  is  planted  by 
the  Creator's  hand  in  germ  in  every  child's  nature; 


134  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

that  it  grows  by  what  it  feeds  on,  and  that  the 
teacher  may  and  should  supply  those  conditions  by 
which  this  great  gift  should  be  kept  in  healthful 
activity. 

3.  This  leads  to  a  third  important  principle, 
namely,  that  to  foster  the  spirit  of  learning  in  the 
pupil  learning  must  be  made  pleasurable.  Quin- 
tilian  said,  "  Let  study  be  to  the  child  a  play." 
Fenelon  went  to  the  extreme  of  making  of  the 
school  a  bazaar  and  of  study  a  pastime.  He  would 
have  nothing  hard  or  disagreeable  in  education. 
"There  all  metals  are  gold,  all  flowers  are  roses." 
John  Locke,  while  recommending  a  hardening  pro- 
cess for  the  boy  to  prepare  him  for  bearing  life's 
burdens,  would  still  make  study  attractive  and 
throw  around  it  whatever  of  delight  is  consistent 
with  earnest  labor. 

It  is  doubtless  true  that  education  necessarily 
involves  something  of  restraint,  limitation,  control, 
and  labor,  which  is  irksome  to  the  average  pupil. 
Perhaps  there  maybe  "no  royal  road  to  learning." 
There  is  an  admitted  necessity  for  discipline  and 
direction  on  the  part  of  the  teacher.  Education 
consists  in  part  in  learning  obedience,  in  acquiring 
the  habits  of  doing  even  disagreeable  work  from  a 
sense  of  duty.  Nevertheless,  it  is  to  be  emphasized 
that  the  school  should  not  be  a  prison  within  whose 
walls  unwilling  children  are  to  be  confined  by  force 
and  driven  to  unwelcome  tasks  by  frowns  and  threats 
and  blows.  The  very  atmosphere  of  many  school- 
rooms  is  heavy  and   depressing      With    nothing   to 


TRAINING    TO  LEARN.         ,  135 

relieve  the  bleakness  of  the  surroundings,  the  bare- 
ness of  the  walls,  the  hardness  of  the  benches, 
the  monatony  of  the  recitations,  the  dreariness  of 
the  tasks,  and  the  severity  of  the  discipline,  the 
school  becomes  to  many  a  child  a  dreadful  place 
from  which  even  a  factory  affords  a  welcome  release. 

Whatever  may  be  done  to  render  the  schoolhouse 
comfortable  and  tasteful,  the  discipline  kind,  and  the 
methods  of  instruction  attractive  should  be  done  in 
order  that  the  associations  of  school  life  shall  always 
be  pleasant,  and,  that  the  pupil  may  be  led  by  the 
sweet  allurements  of  the  place  to  put  forth  his  best 
efforts  in  the  pursuit  of  knowledge. 

The  games,  occupations,  music,  birds,  and  flowers 
of  the  kindergarten  ;  the  stories,  the  "  Friday  after- 
noons," the  singing,  and  gymnastics  of  the  primary 
and  intermediate  grades ;  the  cabinets  of  illustra- 
tions, and  excursions  of  the  grammar  schools ;  the 
workshops,  laboratories,  and  growing  consciousness 
of  power  and  increasing  appreciation  of  the  value 
of  knowledge  characteristic  of  tlie  high  school ;  and 
the  widening  range  of  vision,  profounder  insight  into 
truth,  the  greater  freedom  of  clioice  and  independ- 
ence of  labor,  together  with  the  genial  companion- 
ship and  stimulating  example  of  great  scholars  to  be 
found  in  the  universities,  should  make  of  every  stage 
of  school  life  a  delightful  feast,  and  awaken  in  the 
mind  of  the  student  a  burning  zeal  for  knowledge. 
If  this  result  fails  the  fault  will  often  be  found  in 
the  feebleness  of  the  teacher  or  the  faultincss  of  his 
methods. 


136  STUDIES   JiV  PEDAGOGY. 

4.  Rising  to  a  still  higher  plane  in  this  ascending 
series  we  reach  a  fourth  condition  of  success  in 
developing  in  the  pupil  an  abiding  love  of  learning. 
All  learning  must  be  in  its  earlier  stages  intuitive; 
the  child  must  be  brought  face  to  face  with  things. 
There  is  no  possible  way,  from  the  very  nature  of 
the  human  constitution,  whereby  a  child  can  have 
definite  ideas  of  color  except  by  sight;  of  odors 
except  by  smell.  Each  sense  must  be  the  medium 
through  which  the  soul  is  brought  into  direct  rela- 
tion with  those  qualities  of  matter  to  which  it  and  it 
alone  is  adjusted.  If  the  pupil  is  to  know  the  quali- 
ties of  things  he  must  be  brought  into  vital  contact 
with  them.  It  is  not  true  that  one  can  have  no 
knowledge  except  that  which  is  intuitive,  but  it  is 
true  that  the  basis  of  all  knowledge  of  material 
things  is  sense  perception.  The  fundamental  data 
of  knowledge,  what  Pestalozzi  calls  "  mother  ideas," 
are  those  primal  notions  of  things  that  come  to  us 
through  the  senses.  The  child  must  be  put  into 
right  relationship  with  nature,  and  his  knowledge  of 
distance,  direction,  plants,  animals,  minerals,  indus- 
tries, commerce,  political  economy,  and  history  must 
rest  upon  personal  observation.  Physiology  cannot 
be  successfully  taught  without  the  skeleton,  nor 
physics  and  chemistry  outside  of  the  laboratory. 

The  mind  brought  into  proper  relation  to  nature,  to 
things,  to  objects  of  sense,  is  allured  to  activity,  grat- 
ified, fed,  developed,  educated.  Learning  becomes 
a  perennial  and  exhaustless  source  of  joy.  But  an 
attempt   to    teach    science    from    books,    before    the 


TRAINING    TO   LEARN.  137 

preliminary  ideas  have  been  made  familiar  by  obser- 
vation, is  not  only  futile,  but  destructive  of  the  pow- 
ers of  the  mind.  Many  a  child  is  ruined  for  life  by 
the  deadening  process  of  cramming  his  memory  with 
words  of  whose  meaning  he  is  ignorant.  Words  are 
but  symbols,  and  are  chiefly  valuable  as  reviving  the 
memory  of  past  experiences,  or  of  putting  into  con- 
venient and  orderly  shape  the  processes  of  our  own 
thinking,  or  at  best  of  stimulating  the  mind  to  put 
itself  by  its  own  energies  into  the  same  state  as 
that  occupied  by  the  writer.  As  a  general  law  words 
should  come  after  ideas  ;  the  child  should  learn 
things  before  he  learns  about  things  ;  he  should 
derive  all  his  ideas  of  number  by  counting,  com- 
bining, separating,  dividing,  weighing,  and  measuring 
things  ;  he  should  not  be  taught  to  read  until  he  has 
ideas  and  thoughts,  and  can  embody  them  in  sen- 
tences of  his  own  structure.  Books  should  sup- 
plement and  not  precede  oral  instruction.  Facts 
should  precede  principles ;  processes  come  before 
rules.  Grammar  and  rhetoric  should  always  follow 
practical  language ;  literature  should  comprise  the 
reading  of  the  authors  and  not  merely  reading 
about  them  ;  foreign  language  should  be  learned  by 
use  and  not  from  grammar.  Geography  should  as 
far  as  possible  be  learned  from  travel,  and  psychol- 
ogy from  introspection. 

This  great  law  of  nature,  the  imperative  necessity 
of  knowledge  at  first  hand,  has  been  repeated  by  all 
the  great  reformers  in  educational  methods,  by  Mon- 
taigne, Rousseau,  Locke,  Comenius,   Pestalozzi,  and 


138  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

Froebel,  and  is  so  patent  as  to  command  at  once  the 
assent  of  every  thoughtful  mind,  and  yet  it  is  ruth- 
lessly violated  every  day  nearly  everywhere  and,  I 
might  almost  say,  by  nearly  everybody.  And  Nature 
avenges  herself  by  blinding  the  teachers  who  do  it 
and  by  stupefying  the  minds  of  their  victims.  The 
school,  which  should  be  a  seminary,  a  place  of  seed- 
sowing,  becomes  a  charnel-house,  the  burial-place  of 
fond  hopes  and  youthful  aspirations. 

The  meagre  results  that  often  issue  from  long 
years  of  schooling,  the  vast  number  of  pupils  that 
drop  out  of  the  lower  grades,  the  few  that  find  their 
way  to  college,  the  spirit  of  indifference  to  learning 
that  pervades  so  many  educational  institutions,  the 
oft-repeated  criticism  of  the  public  school  system  for 
its  lack  of  practical  results,  the  widespread  agitation 
in  favor  of  industrial  training,  and  the  bitter  com- 
plaint of  many  distinguished  men  as  to  how  they 
were  educated,  all  point  to  a  real  defect  in  our 
system  of  instruction.  It  is  the  part  of  wisdom  to 
locate  the  evil,  if  possible,  and  then  to  remove  it. 

None  perhaps  will  be  bold  enough  to  deny  that 
the  evil  consists,  in  part,  at  least,  in  the  too  preva- 
lent habit  of  substituting  words  for  things,  books  for 
nature,  and  that  the  remedy  for  this  form  of  the 
evil  is  to  be  found  in  relegating  the  textbook  to  its 
proper  place,  in  emancipating  the  pupil  from  bondage 
to  the  letter,  and  in  restoring  to  him  the  freedom  of 
intercourse  with  nature,  either  directly  or  by  means 
of  cabinets  and  laboratories. 

5.  Another  cardinal  principle  of  education,  spring- 


TRAINING    TO  LEARN.  1 39 

ing  from  the  very  constitution  of  the  human  mind,  is 
that  the  fullest  activity  of  all  the  child's  powers  must 
be  called  into  requisition  in  the  process  of  learning. 
The  sources  of  human  knowledge  are  few.  The 
primal  source  of  knowledge  of  the  world  without 
is  observation,  of  the  world  within  is  conscious- 
ness. When  we  add  to  these  reflection,  testimony, 
and  authority  we  have  exhausted  the  category.  Each 
of  these  should  be  duly  recognized.  Neither  can 
be  a  substitute  for  the  other.  The  child  should  be 
habituated  to  avail  himself  of  each  and  all  of  them. 
It  is  not  enough  that  he  be  brought  into  contact 
with  nature.  The  North  American  savage  and  the 
African  bushman  have  always  lived  in  contact  with 
nature,  and  are  savage  still.  Men  grow  up  in  the 
country  with  no  knowledge  of  botany,  and  in  the 
city  and  remain  ignorant  of  society.  The  work  of 
the  teacher  is  to  stimulate  the  pupil  to  use  his 
senses.  But  the  senses  may  easily  be  overstimulated, 
and  the  man  become  thereby  brutalized.  The  cat 
has  a  sharp  eye  and  the  dog  a  keen  smell  without 
becoming  intellectual.  There  is  imperative  need 
that  the  child  shall  be  led  to  think  and  be  exercised 
in  forming  judgments.  Agassiz  is  said  to  have 
declared  that  "the  chief  thing  in  education  is  the 
habit  of  comparison,"  while  Montaigne  laid  great 
stress  upon  forming  the  judgment.  The  Jesuits  were 
intent  upon  training  the  memory,  while  Locke  asserted 
that  it  was  incapable  of  being  trained.  Setting  aside 
these  partial  views  we  may  state,  what  would  now 
be    generally    accepted,  that    in    the    acquisition    of 


140 


STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 


learning  all  our  faculties  are  to  be  engaged.  The 
senses  give  us  material  qualities ;  consciousness, 
mental  states ;  reflection  brings  to  light  relations, 
causes,  forces  ;  memory  brings  back  the  past,  and 
imagination  presents  the  distant  and  the  unseen. 
Testimony  weighed,  sifted,  digested  is  our  reliance 
for  knowledge  out  of  the  range  of  personal  experi- 
ence, and  authority  supplies  what  lies  beyond  the 
reach  of  both  our  experience  and  our  reason. 

6.  To  cause  a  child  to  learn  consists  largely  in 
directing  him  to  the  right  sources  of  knowledge, 
showing  him  how  to  avail  himself  of  them,  and 
plying  him  with  such  motives  that  he  will  make 
right  use  of  them. 

Books  have  their  value  as  testimony  to  matters  of 
fact  and  as  authority  on  questions  of  doctrine,  and 
every  child  who  is  to  be  a  learner  must  know  how  to 
use  them.  They  are  now  the  chief  source  of  knowl- 
edge to  every  student.  No  man  can  safely  ignore 
them.  They  bring  within  the  reach  of  the  individual 
the  results  of  the  labors  of  the  race,  and  make  avail- 
able in  a  brief  space  of  time  the  scholarly  toil  of 
past  ages.  When  the  learner  enters  a  library  he 
becomes  a  citizen  of  the  world,  a  companion  of  the 
great,  and  is  restricted  in  his  companionship  with 
the  wise  by  no  limits  of  time,  space,  nationality, 
creed,  or  caste.  Books  are  priceless  treasures. 
They  are  to  the  scholar  among  the  necessaries  of 
life,  like  food,  fire,  and  raiment.  But  books  are 
helpful  only  to  him  who  knows  how  to  use  them. 
They  are  not  made  to  be  devoured    either   by  the 


TRAINING    TO  LEARN.  I41 

Stomach  or  the  memory.  Nor  are  they  a  substitute 
for  thinking,  but  only  an  aid.  They  should  not  pre- 
cede, but  should  supplement,  personal  effort.  They 
are  helpful  when  rightly  used,  but  deadly  hurtful 
when  abused.  Idolatry  is  misdirected  worship ;  mere 
memorizing  of  textbooks  is  a  sort  of  intellectual 
fetichism.  To  be  taught  to  observe,  to  reflect,  to 
think,  to  read,  to  reason  is  to  be  put  on  the  great 
highroad  to  learning. 

This  law  of  activity  which  requires  that  the  stu- 
dent through  his  entire  course  of  study  should  be 
called  upon  to  put  forth  his  own  energies  admits 
wide  and  varied  application.  It  underlies  the  occu- 
pations of  the  kindergarten.  It  explains  the  true 
meaning  and  intent  of  object-teaching,  whereby  the 
child  is  led  to  study  the  object  for  itself  and  report 
the  results  of  its  observations.  It  is  the  secret  of 
language  lessons,  in  which  he  is  required  first  to 
think  and  then  to  give  expression  to  his  thought  in 
his  own  way.  In  form  and  drawing  he  is  led  to 
inventive  efforts  ;  in  geography,  to  map  drawing 
and  modeling  in  clay ;  in  number,  to  constructing 
his  own  tables  and  framing  his  own  problems.  In 
geometry  the  pupil  works  out  original  demonstra- 
tions, and  in  the  study  of  the  natural  sciences  he 
seeks  by  experiment  and  induction  to  discover  for 
himself  laws  and  classifications.  It  is  urged  by  t"he 
ablest  advocates  of  industrial  training  that  its  chief 
advantage  is  that  it  stimulates  the  mind  to  greater 
and  more  varied  activity  and  supplements  mental  by 
muscular  action  ;  that  the  pupil  becomes  a  creator, 


142  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

and  learns  by  doing.  One  great  privilege  in  a  nor- 
mal school  is  thfe  opportunity  of  teaching  while 
studying,  for  teaching  is  a  capital  way  of  learning. 
Recitations,  reproductions,  written  examinations, 
composition,  original  investigation,  all  rest  upon 
the  recognized  principle  that  one  condition  of  learn- 
ing is  the  calling  of  the  student's  powers  into  activ- 
ity. What  is  urged  here  is  the  more  complete 
recognition  of  this  law  in  all  school  work,  in  the 
learning  of  Latin,  Greek,  and  history  as  well  as  in 
the  physical  sciences. 

It  was  a  favorite  theory  of  that  able  writer, 
Jacotot,  so  much  eulogized  by  Joseph  Payne,  that 
a  teacher  may  teach  what  he  himself  does  not  know 
and  that  a  pupil  may  learn  everything  from  a  very 
few  things.  "  Tout  est  dans  tout,^'  he  insisted.  His 
method  of  proceeding  went  far  toward  justifying 
what  at  first  appears  paradoxical,  if  not  absurd. 
The  teacher  does  not  teach,  he  incites  his  pupil  to 
learn.  Supplying  him  with  a  suitable  object  for 
study,  he  proceeds  to  question  him  as  to  what  he 
observes  and  what  he  thinks.  Under  the  teacher's 
guidance  and  stimulus  he  becomes  deeply  interested 
in  the  pursuit,  brings  to  bear  upon  it  all  his  ener- 
gies, and  achieves  marvelous  results.  Although  his 
method  was  wholly  different,  Socrates,  the  greatest 
teacher  of  antiquity,  proceeded  upon  the  same  prin- 
ciple—  that  his  business  was  not  to  teach,  but  to  set 
his  pupils  to  learning.  This  he  did  by  a  very 
effective  method  of  questioning,  which  led  them  to 
the  most  intense  mental  activity  and  independent 
research. 


TRAINING    TO   LEARN.  1 43 

In  conclusion,  let  me  cite  the  example  and  method 
of  the  Great  Teacher,  whose  influence  in  inciting 
men  to  become  devotees  of  sacred  learning  has  been 
so  widespread  and  intense  for  wellnigh  two  thousand 
years.  Though  divine  in  his  personality,  he  yet 
respected  the  individuality  of  every  man,  lived  on 
familiar  terms  of  intimacy  even  with  the  lowly  and 
ignorant.  While  making  revelations  to  men  of  the 
hidden  mysteries  of  God's  kingdom,  he  concealed  far 
more  than  he  revealed,  and  while  feeding  their  curi- 
osity, he  fed  it  only  to  intensify  its  hunger.  He 
threw  about  his  teaching  the  charm  of  parable, 
simile,  and  story,  and  illustrated  his  doctrines  by 
deeds  that  appealed  to  the  senses.  He  led  his 
disciples  to  the  seaside  and  the  mountain-top,  and 
by  his  words  threw  a  halo  around  not  Palestine  only, 
but  over  all  nature  as  well.  He  incited  his  pupils  to 
activity  by  telling  them  that  only  those  willing  to  do 
his  will  and  keep  his  commandments  could  know  his 
doctrine.  We  may  not  slavishly  copy  his  example, 
but  if  we  would  succeed  in  arousing  in  our  pupils  an 
abiding  devotion  to  learning,  we  may  with  profit 
study  his  methods  and  strive  to  catch  something  of 
his  spirit. 


X. 

TRAINING   IN   MUSIC. 


Music  is  the  universal  language  of  mankind. 

H.  W.  Longfellow. 


Singing  is  as  natural  to  man  as  speaking,  and  for  any  reason  that 

appears  to  the  contrary,  it  should  be  as  universal. 

James  Currie. 

Music  religious  heat  inspires. 

It  wakes  the  soul  and  lifts  it  high, 

^nd  wings  it  with  sublime  desires. 

And  fits  it  to  bespeak  the  Deity. 

Addison. 


We  attach  such  supreme  importance  to  a  musical  education 
because  rhythm  and  harmony  sink  most  deeply  into  the  recesses  of  the 
soul,  bringing  gracefulness  in  their  train,  and  making  a  man  graceful 
if  he  is  rightly  nurtured. 

PLA.TO. 


TRAINING    IN    MUSIC. 

Mnless  a  schoolmaster  know  how  to  sing,  I  think  him  of  no  account. 

—  Luther. 

We  are  slowly  outgrowing  the  notion  that  the 
common  schools  should  confine  their  instructions 
to  the  "three  R's."  Preparation  for  the  duties 
of  citizenship  is  not  completed  when  a  child  can 
read  a  ballot,  write  his  name,  and  count  the  price 
of  his  vote.  Gradually  the  curriculum  of  even  the 
commonest  school  is  enlarging  so  as  to  include 
physiology,   history,   morals,  and  civics. 

Vocal  music  should  be  taught  scientifically  in 
every  public  school,  as  a  regular  study,  and  special 
attention  should  be  paid  to  it  in  all  the  lower  grades, 
particularly  the  primary  and  the  kindergarten. 

One  of  the  obvious  reasons  for  this  is  that  music 
lends  a  charm  to  the  school  and  renders  it  attractive. 
The  kindergarten  games  with  musical  accompaniment 
are  fascinating  for  little  children,  and  in  the  primary 
grades  no  time  passes  more  delightfully  than  that 
spent  in  singing.  With  proper  training,  the  love  for 
music  grows  with  the  growth  of  the  pupil.  Even  in 
academy,  high  school,  normal  school,  and  college, 
music  hath  still  its  charms,  and  the  recollection  of 
hymns   and   the   echo   of    songs   linger   long    in    the 


148  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

memory  of  graduates  and  recall  some  of  the  sweet- 
est experiences  of  schooldays.  There  are  very  few 
children  indeed  that  are  not  susceptible  to  its  influ- 
ences, and  even  those  who  do  not  sing  themselves 
delight  in  hearing  others.  School  is  not  attractive 
to  all.  Many  find  its  restraints  irksome,  its  routine 
monotonous,  its  discipline  hard  to  bear.  Whatever 
can  be  done  to  awaken  in  such  pupils  a  love  for 
school  should  be  done.  To  some  of  them  certainly 
music  may  be  winsome. 

It  is  an  aid  in  school  government.  It  softens  the 
childish  asperities,  sweetens  the  temper,  and  predis- 
poses to  obedience.  Harmony  is  the  soul  of  music 
and  where  this  reigns  discord  vanishes.  Especially 
is  it  true  that  teachers  who  love  song  are  less  likely 
to  be  snappish  and  to  stir  up  antagonisms  than  those 
who  do  not.  Singing  at  the  opening  of  school  brings 
at  once  all  hearts  into  unison  and  is  an  admirable 
preparation  for  the  work  of  the  day.  Those  who 
have  come  to  school  bent  on  mischief  are  disarmed. 
When  school  closes  with  a  song  in  which  all  join, 
the  tired  mind  finds  rest,  the  overtaxed  nerves  are 
relieved,  the  little  annoyances  of  the  day  are  forgot- 
ten, wounded  feelings  are  healed,  and  the  children  go 
to  their  homes,  not  to  find  fault  with  the  school,  but 
to  praise  it,  and,  instead  of  plotting  mischief  for  the 
morrow,  they  plan  pleasant  things. 

Music  is  helpful  as  a  means  of  physical  training, 
for  it  promotes  deep  breathing,  erect  posture,  and 
encourages  a  proper  regard  for  the  throat  and  lungs 
as  the  instruments   of   sound.      By   cultivating  the 


TRAINING   IN  MUSIC.  1 49 

voice  it  becomes  specially  valuable  as  an  auxiliary 
to  pleasing  conversation,  good  reading,  and  elegant 
speaking.  It  is  an  invaluable  means  for  securing 
mental  development,  the  chief  end  for  which  schools 
are  established.  Rightly  taught  it  develops  atten- 
tion, observation,  especially  trains  the  sense  of  hear- 
ing, cultivates  the  memory,  the  imagination,  and  the 
judgment.  It  secures  precision,  promptness,  and 
develops  good  taste.  It  promotes  cheerfulness, 
fortitude,  goodfellowship,  and  an  appreciation  of 
the  mutual  dependence  of  all  who  live  together  in 
a  community.  It  is  a  preparation  for  good  citizen- 
ship. 

It  is  a  thought  worthy  of  especial  consideration 
that  the  effects  of  music  learned  at  school  are  felt 
at  once  in  the  home  circle.  The  busy  mother  and 
the  tired  father  may  not  care  to  hear  the  child  recite 
the  multiplication  table,  analyze  a  sentence,  describe 
the  climate  of  China,  or  read  a  selection  from  the 
Fourth  Reader,  but  they  will  be  pleased  to  listen  as 
he  sings  while  at  work  or  play,  and  often  that  song 
is  the  very  breath  of  heaven  to  drive  from  heart  and 
home  the  clouds  of  care  and  sorrow.  The  mass  of 
school-children  come  from  the  homes  of  the  poor, 
where  life  is  serious  and  where  there  is  not  much  to 
cheer.  A  merry  child,  singing  the  songs  of  the 
school,  is  an  angel  of  beauty  in  such  a  household. 
Often  children  of  the  same  family  or  the  same 
neighborhood  form  a  choir  whose  music  is  One  of 
the  greatest  charms  of  the  circle.  Life  is  bitter 
enough  at  best,  and  even  under  the  most  favorable 


1  5  O  STUDIES  IN  FED  A  GOGY. 

circumstances  the  weight  of  care  is  hard  to  endure. 
We  need  the  help  of  music  to  gladden  the  heart, 
cheer  the  hope,  and  drown  our  sorrows.  In  what 
other  way  can  its  sweet  influence  be  so  widely- 
diffused  as  by  its  introduction  into  all  our  schools 
whence  it  permeates  the  humblest  cottage  as  well  as 
the  more  favored  home .-' 

A  very  large  proportion  of  our  population  have  an 
interest  in  some  form  of  religious  worship  where 
music  is  employed.  Musical  instruction  in  school 
enables  the  children  to  share  in  this  delightful  ser- 
vice and  thus  becomes  in  the  highest  degree  tributary 
to  their  well-being.  Those  who  insist  so  strongly 
that  the  schools  should  be  practical  and  prepare 
their  pupils  for  their  various  spheres  in  life  must 
concede  that  the  ability  to  sing  is  a  preparation  for 
home  life,  a  passport  in  society,  an  indispensable 
prerequisite  to  participation  in  church  service,  and  a 
sweet  solace  to  many  even  in  solitude. 

Every  one  who  has  ever  been  in  Germany  knows 
how  large  a  part  music  plays  in  the  pleasures  of  the 
people.  Their  musical  festivals  are  attended  by 
thousands  who  find  in  them  their  highest  delight. 
The  over-driven  people  of  America  need  the  recre- 
ation, the  amusement,  the  happiness,  which  would 
flow  immediately  out  of  universal  instruction  in 
music  in  our  public  schools. 

Unlike  many  of  the  popular  amusements,  music 
leaves'  no  sting  behind  :  its  tendency  is  to  refine  and 
ennoble.  Certainly  it  is  incomparably  better  for  the 
people  to  love  music  than  to  love  prize-fighting,  bull- 


TRAINING  IN  MUSIC.  1 5  I 

baiting,  horse-racing,  or  even  boat-racing  or  ball- 
playing.  It  is  suitable  for  men,  women,  and  children  ; 
it  is  within  the  reach  of  all;  promotes  sociability, 
improves  the  manners,  and  offers  little  inducement 
for  excess  or  immorality. 

An  incidental  advantage  growing  out  of  our 
public  school  system  is  the  equalization  of  life's 
blessings.  Wealth  and  all  its  attendant  advantages 
tends  towards  aggregation.  The  rich  grow  richer 
and  the  poor  poorer.  Classes  grow  apart,  social 
distinctions  incline  towards  iixedness.  Caste  springs 
up.  The  poor  grow  disheartened,  and  social  antago- 
nisms, jealousies,  hatreds,  spring  up  that  threaten 
the  peace  and  prosperity  of  all.  The  public  school 
tends  to  prevent  all  this  by  putting  the  rudiments 
of  education,  which  are  the  elements  of  power,  into 
the  hands  of  the  poorest.  The  richj  by  the  pittance 
of  school-tax,  maintain  a  system  of  education  that 
calls  into  exercise  all  the  latent  powers  that  slumber 
in  the  minds  of  the  children  of  poverty,  awakens 
ambition,  gives  an  appreciation  of  beauty,  develops 
a  consciousness  of  power,  a  sense  of  dignity,  and 
starts  them  in  life's  struggle  with  something  like 
an  even  chance.  The  public  school  levels  up. 
Cultivation  in  music  plays  a  large  part  in  this 
leveling-up  process.  It  is  in  its  nature  aesthetic, 
it  reaches  the  taste,  cultivates  a  love  for  beauty  in 
all  its  forms,  and  opens  to  the  child  some  of  the 
rarest  pleasures  which  otherwise  might  be  the  sole 
prerogative  of  the  rich. 

Another  great   function   of   the    American   public 


152  STUDIES   IN  PEDAGOGY. 

school  is  to  awaken  in  the  hearts  of  our  youth  a 
sympathy  for  each  other.  The  most  obvious  feature 
of  our  population  is  its  mixed  character.  We  have 
all  nationalities  represented,  and  in  many  parts  of 
the  country  the  native  and  the  foreign  elements  are 
about  equally  divided.  We  have  Germans  and 
French,  English  and  Irish,  Russians  and  Poles, 
Italians  and  Scandinavians,  Negroes  and  Chinamen. 
The  elements  of  racial  war  are  here  in  great  abund- 
ance. Our  peace  and  prosperity  as  a  nation  depend 
largely  upon  the  complete  harmonization  of  these 
clashing  elements.  This  is  our  great  task  —  the 
one  great  problem  of  the  age.  To  break  down 
race  distinctions,  destroy  race  prejudices,  annihilate 
inherited  hatreds,  and  bring  all  these  peoples  under 
the  sway  of  common  ideas  and  sentiments,  is  an 
undertaking  that  may  well  stagger  the  stoutest  heart. 
But  it  must  be  done.  Out  of  this  manifoldness  we 
must  be  one  people.  E  phiribus  unuin  is  our  watch- 
word. 

There  is  but  one  agency  that  is  competent  for  this 
mighty  task :  that  is  the  American  public  school, 
where  all  are  on  a  level,  where  rich  and  poor,  high 
and  low,  native  and  foreign,  white  and  black,  the 
Christian  and  the  "  heathen  Chinee  "  meet  together, 
and  the  common  school  is  the  friend  of  them  all. 
The  first  bond  of  union  is  a  common  language.  The 
English  children  who  speak  with  vernacular  fluency 
the  same  tongue  are  no  longer  aliens  to  each  other. 
All  other  differences  are  slight  compared  with  a 
difference  of  speech.     When  this  is  gone  intercourse 


TRAINING  IN  MUSIC.  1 53 

is  made  easy,  misunderstandings  disappear,  reconcili- 
ations are  easy,  and  children  readily  fraternize, 
and,  in  many  cases,  as  readily  intermarry.  Race 
peculiarities  are  not  troublesome  when  under  the 
same  roof,  and  German  and  French  blood  flow 
quietly  together  in  the  same  veins. 

The  influence  of  song  in  breaking  down  discordant 
differences  is  scarcely  less  than  that  of  language 
itself.  I  stood  recently  in  the  great  school  at 
Carlisle,  Pennsylvania,  where  four  hundred  Indian 
boys  and  girls,  representing  forty  different  tribes, 
with  generations  of  bloody  antipathies,  were  singing, 
and  as  the  volume  of  song  rose  in  its  majestic  and 
harmonious  swell,  all  hearts  seemed  united.  When 
I  saw  a  little  later  out  on  the  campus,  Sioux, 
Pawnees,  and  Apaches,  parading  arm  in  arm, 
seemingly  unconscious  of  any  tribal  distinctions, 
it  seemed  a  prophecy  of  the  good  time  coming, 
when  under  the  influence  of  the  public  schools  the 
children  of  this  land  will  know  no  difference  of 
ancestry,  but  will  all  be  Americans.  Music  is  not 
the  only  nor  the  chief  agency  in  this  tremendous 
transformation,  but  it  is  one  of  the  greatest,  one  of 
the  most  effective,  and  one  of  the  most  indispensable 
factors.  To  neglect  it  is  the  height  of  folly,  to  use 
it  the  highest  wisdom. 

Another  reason  for  teaching  music  in  the  public 
schools  is  that  it  is  a  part  of  a  complete  education. 
Education  is  the  unfolding  and  disciplining  of  all  our 
powers.  The  capacity  for  music  is  just  as  much  a 
part  of  our  common  human  nature  as  the  ability  to 


154  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

think.  The  appreciation  of  sounds  is  second  in 
importance  only  to  the  appreciation  of  form  and 
color.  To  neglect  the  ear  while  we  train  the  eye  is 
to  discriminate  unfairly  against  one  of  the  chief 
senses.  To  educate  a  child  and  not  train  him  in 
music  is  to  give  him  a  one-sided  culture,  a  truncated 
development.  He  is  not  a  complete  man,  he  is 
defective.  Incapable  of  appreciating  the  marvelous 
and  exhaustless  beauties  of  sound,  unable  to  express 
his  feelings  in  the  most  expressive  way,  shut  out 
from  sympathetic  companionship  of  those  more 
fortunate  than  himself,  he  has  been  robbed  of  his 
birthright. 

The  State  has  practically  monopolized  the  business 
of  education.  The  great  mass  of  children  receive 
no  other  training  than  that  received  in  the  public 
school.  When  they  quit  the  public  school,  they  quit 
systematic  study.  Their  education  in  its  truest  sense 
is  ended.  If  they  receive  no  musical  training  in 
school,  they  never  receive  it.  If  the  State  does  not 
provide  for  the  culture  of  this  important  part  of 
their  nature,  it  will  remain  dormant.  When  grown 
to  manhood  and  womanhood  they  will  have  a  right 
to  say  to  the  State  :  — 

"We  are  grateful  to  you  for  your  care  of  us  in 
childhood,  for  the  provisions  you  made  for  our 
education,  but  we  feel  that  your  work  was  not 
complete.  You  taught  us  to  read,  but  not  to  sing ; 
to  express  our  thoughts  in  words,  but  not  in  song ;  to 
appreciate  the  beauties  of  color,  but  not  of  sound. 
You    opened    the    way   for   an    appreciation    of    the 


TRAINING  IN  MUSIC.  I  55 

world's  great  poets,  but  not  of  the  world's  great 
composers."  I  do  not  see  how  the  State  can  reply 
to  this  criticism.  It  has  assumed  to  educate,  it  takes 
under  its  care  millions  of  little  children,  and  keeps 
them  at  school  from  five  to  fourteen,  the  most  impres- 
sive period  of  life,  and  says  to  parents :  "  Ample 
provision  has  been  made  for  the  education  of  your 
children  ;  costly  schoolhouses,  competent  teachers, 
and  extensive  superintendence  has  rendered  private 
work  unnecessary."  The  State  educates.  This  puts 
the  State  under  the  most  solemn  obligations  to  do  all 
that  is  implied  in  the  word  education.  At  least  if 
the  State  undertakes  the  education  of  the  child 
during  its  early  years,  it  owes  to  the  child  to  do 
all  that  ought  to  be  done  during  those  years. 

If  music  is  ever  to  be  taught  it  must  be  taught  in 
childhood.  It  should  begin  in  the  nursery,  be  fos- 
tered by  the  mother,  and  encouraged  in  the  home 
circle.  But  the  time  and  place  for  systematic  musical 
training  is  the  school  in  childhood.  It  should  find 
a  place  in  the  regular  school  curriculum  and  form  a 
part  of  the  daily  exercises.  It  should  be  a  study, 
a  continuous,  prolonged  course,  beginning  with  the 
simplest  rudiments  and  leading  the  child  on  by  suc- 
cessive steps,  systematic  drill,  and  much  practice, 
until  he  can  render  difificult  pieces,  appreciate  the 
highest  classics,  and  himself  know  something  of 
composition. 

But  the  question  whether  the  State  shall  teach 
music  is  much  broader  than  it  seems.  It  is  really 
the    question    whether    popular    education    shall    be 


156  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

restricted  to  the  merely  practical,  the  useful,  the 
"bread  and  butter"  studies,  or  whether  it  shall 
include  those  studies  that  refine  and  liberalize. 
Shall  we  teach  only  facts,  or  shall  we  also  teach 
the  beautiful  ?  Is  man  only  a  beast  of  burden, 
or  is  he  a  social  being  and  capable  of  the  highest 
and  noblest  enjoyments  ?  On  every  side  is  heard  a 
clamor  for  industrial  education,  manual  training,  the 
teaching  of  trades.  Some  would  convert  the  school 
into  a  laundry,  a  carpenter-shop,  or  a  smithy ;  pupils 
into  apprentices,  and  teachers  into  master-mechanics. 
While  conceding  the  force  of  many  of  their  argu- 
ments and  a  modicum  of  truth  in  some  of  the  claims, 
it  should  be  strongly  insisted  upon  that  the  prime 
aim  of  schools  is  training  of  faculty,  development  of 
character,  culture.  A  child  trained  to  think,  to  feel, 
to  enjoy,  will  find  ways  of  getting  a  living  and  for 
gratifying  his  tastes. 

Life  does  not  consist  in  the  abundance  of  things 
one  possesses  but  in  the  ability  to  enjoy  what  one 
has.  A  large  place  in  even  the  primary  schools  can 
be  vindicated  for  vocal  music,  as  a  culture  study,  an 
instrument  of  refinement  and  of  enrichment  of  the 
soul. 


XI. 

TRAINING   TO    USE   BOOKS. 


The  true  university  in  these  days  is  a  collection  of  books. 

Thomas  Carlyle. 


Books  are  the  best  things  well  used;   abused,  among  the  worst. 

R.  W.  Emerson. 


Some  books  are  to  be  tasted,  others  to  be  swallowed,  and  some 

few  to  be  chewed  and  digested. 

Francis  Bacon. 


If  I  were  to  pray  for  a  taste  that  should  stand  me  in  stead  under 
any  variety  of  circumstances,  and  be  a  source  of  happiness  and 
cheerfulness  to  me  through  life,  and  a  shield  against  its  ills,  however 
things  might  go  amiss  and  the  world  frown  upon  me,  it  would  be 
a  taste  for  reading. 

Sir  John  Herschel. 


XI. 

TRAINING   TO    USE    BOOKS. 

I  am  inclined  to  tiiinlv  the  most  useful  help  to  reading  is  to  know 
what  we  should  not  read.  —  Frederick  Harrison. 

According  to  the  last  published  report  (1884-85) 
of  the  Commissioner  of  Education,  there  are  in  the 
United  States  more  than  five  thousand  public 
libraries,  with  more  than  twenty  million  volumes. 
It  is,  therefore,  a  very  pertinent  question.  What 
should  be  the  relationship  between  the  public 
libraries  and  the  public  schools  ?  It  is  the  purpose 
of  this  paper  to  outline  an  answer  to  this  inquiry. 

The  public  library  would  be  comparatively  useless 
without  the  public  school.  Men  must  know  how  to 
read  before  they  need  books.  Indeed  a  very  high 
order  of  intelligence  is  required  before  they  are  able 
to  profit  to  any  great  degree  by  their  use.  There 
are  good  books  and  bad  books,  books  full  of  truth 
and  books  not  so  full,  books  that  energize  and  books 
that  enervate,  books  on  which  men  feed  and  grow 
wise,  strong,  and  good,  and  books  that  render  the 
reader  weak,  foolish,  and  vicious.  Even  the  books 
that  have  come  down  to  us  from  antiquity,  sifted  and 
tested  by  time,  and  stamped  by  common  consent  as 
classic,  differ  widely  in  merit,  while  a  very  large 
proportion  of  modern  books  have  little  or  no  perma- 
nent value.     A  library  is,  or  at  least  may  be,  simply 

159 


l6o  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

a  Storehouse  in  which  is  gathered  a  miscellaneous 
collection  of  books,  good,  bad,  and  indifferent, 
ancient  and  modern,  on  subjects  scientific,  literary, 
and  historical.  To  an  ignorant  man  such  a  library  is 
without  significance  or  value.  True  the  veriest  boor 
may  learn  something  by  a  visit  to  a  botanical  garden, 
a  museum  of  curiosities,  or  a  menagerie,  but  he  will 
scarcely  have  even  his  wonder  excited  by  a  visit  to  a 
public  library,  unless  it  be  at  the  folly  of  those  who 
find  any  interest  therein.  Public  libraries  are  for 
the  educated  :  they  follow  and  supplement  the  public 
schools. 

If  a  library  is  to  be  really  useful  to  a  community, 
it  is  necessary  that  its  readers  should  be  specially 
trained  for  using  it.  They  need  to  know  not  only 
what  books  are  worth  reading,  but  also  how  to  read 
them.  A  large  portion  of  the  habitual  patrons  of 
the  public  library  have  a  very  low  standard  of  choice 
in  selecting  their  reading.  They  are  about  as  com- 
petent to  select  their  books  as  sick  people  are  to 
choose  their  medicines  or  children  their  food.  When 
students  have  learned  to  read,  and  have  had  their 
thirst  for  books  awakened,  they  are  just  as  likely  to 
read  bad  books  as  good  ones.  The  fevered  man 
drinks  ice-water  to  his  detriment  and  the  hungry  boy 
gorges  himself  with  green  fruit  to  his  sorrow.  So 
too  the  curious  child  eagerly  devours  sensational 
trash,  goody-goody  nonsense,  or  poisonous  literature, 
destructive  alike  of  purity  and  strength.  A  part  of 
the  teacher's  work  is  to  guard  him  from  the  miasma 
of  pernicious  literature  by  fostering  a  taste  for  that 
which  is  wholesome. 


TRAINING    TO    USi:  BOOKS.  l6l 

The  teacher  can  suggest  to  pupils  valuable  books 
suitable  for  their  age,  attainments,  tastes,  and  neces- 
sities. Many  a  boy  has  been  ruined  by  the  dime 
novel,  who  might  have  been  saved  by  reading  boolis 
of  real  adventure  and  true  heroism,  suggested  to  him 
by  some  thoughtful,  faithful  teacher.  Seldom  does 
a  day  pass  when  the  vigilant  teacher  has  not  an 
opportunity,  either  in  class  or  in  private  conversa- 
tion, to  drop  into  the  prepared  soil  of  some  pupil's 
mind  a  hint  of  some  valuable  book  to  read.  When 
a  reading  class  has  become  interested  in  a  beautiful 
selection  from  some  classic  author,  how  natural  for 
the  teacher  to  say,  "To-morrow  I  will  bring  from  the 
library  a  volume  of  this  author's  works,  and  read  to 
you  another  choice  selection  ;  some  of  you  may  wish 
to  read  the  entire  volume."  Each  reading  lesson 
may  thus  unlock  some  fascinating  alcove  of  the 
public  library,  and  the  lifelong  habit  of  reading  good 
books  be  inaugurated. 

Pupils  of  the  public  schools  need  to  be  shown  how 
to  consult  a  public  library.  Many  who  enter  the  not 
always  too  attractive  rooms,  where  long  rows  of 
books  peep  at  them  from  behind  barred  doors,  or 
grin  at  them  from  inaccessible  shelves,  or  stand  like 
well-drilled  soldiers  in  solemn  ranks,  disguised  with 
their  paper  uniforms,  defying  recognition,  are 
bewildered  and  turn  away  empty.  They  need  to  be 
introduced  to  the  library,  to  be  shown  its  various 
departments  and  subdivisions,  its  catalogues, 
indexes,  and  bulletins,  and  the  method  of  using  them. 
They  need  to  be  instructed  in  the  art  of  consulting 


1 62  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

the  books  themselves  ;  to  have  explained  to  them 
the  significance  of  the  table  of  contents  and  of  the 
index,  if  the  book  is  so  fortunate  as  to  have  one,  and 
the  value  of  reference,  cross-reference,  and  footnote. 
They  should  be  taught  the  art  of  sampling,  skipping, 
extracting,  and  comparing,  and  be  thus  inducted  into 
the  science  of  transferring  to  their  minds  from  the 
printed  page  the  "  words  that  breathe  and  thoughts 
that  burn,"  and  of  converting  them  into  mental 
furnishing,  spiritual  essence,  and  practical  fibre. 

Men  who  know  how  to  read  a  book  with  discrimi- 
nating intelligence,  appreciating  and  appropriating 
its  best  things,  discovering  and  discarding  its  errors, 
are  rare.  To  read  well  is  to  think  well.  Few  think 
well  who  have  not  been  especially  trained  to  think. 
One  of  the  privileges  of  the  teacher  is  to  read  to  his 
students,  to  hear  them  read,  not  as  a  reading 
exercise,  but  as  a  process  of  training  them  to  the 
profitable  use  of  books. 

Every  school  needs  to  have  its  own  books  of  refer- 
ence and  supplementary  reading,  a  miniature  library 
which  should  be  in  daily  use  by  the  pupils,  freely 
accessible  to  all  under  the  constant  supervision  and 
■direction  of  the  teacher.  On  his  desk  should  always 
be  found  books  germane  to  the  subject  he  is  teach- 
ing: a  mathematical  dictionary  for  the  arithmetic 
class,  books  of  travel  for  geography,  standard  works 
in  history  and  science  to  which  students  should  be 
constantly  referred  for  detailed  statements  of  facts, 
extended  illustrations,  and  full  discussions  such  as 
are  not  practicable  in  a  classroom  nor  appropriate 
for  a  textbook. 


TRAINING    TO    USE  BOOKS.  163 

A  part  of  the  time  of  many  recitations  may  be 
profitably  spent  in  hearing  informal  reports  from  the 
students,  on  what  they  have  read  in  books  designated 
by  the  teacher,  on  topics  assigned  for  investigation, 
or  as  to  what  they  have  found  of  interest  in  their 
miscellaneous  reading. 

Topical  recitations,  preparation  for  which  has  been 
made  by  the  pupils  by  the  examination  of  books 
taken  from  the  public  library,  are  especially  for 
advanced  classes  particularly  valuable. 

In  Providence,  Worcester,  and  other  cities,  sets  of 
books  can  be  taken  from  the  public  library  for  school 
use.  Students  who  have  learned  to  use  these  library 
books  as  well  as  the  dictionaries,  cyclopaedias,  and 
books  of  reference  belonging  to  the  school,  and  who 
are  accustomed  to  weekly  visits  to  the  public  library, 
under  the  escort  of  a  teacher,  soon  acquire  intelligent 
skill  in  availing  themselves  of  the  help  of  books,  and 
gain  a  method  of  reading  and  investigation  that  will 
insure  lifelong  progress  in  the  work  of  self-culture. 

If  the  public  library  is  largely  dependent  on  the 
public  school  for  its  usefulness  to  the  community,  so, 
on  the  other  hand,  is  the  school  largely  dependent 
for  the  performance  of  its  full  mission  upon  the  work 
of  the  public  library.  The  large  body  of  the  world's 
knowledge  and  wisdom  is  shut  up  in  books.  A 
library  is  a  vast  treasure-house  of  information.  Into 
it  are  gathered  the  results  of  ages  of  observation  and 
thought.  Whoever  would  be  truly  wise  must  be  a 
reader  of  books.  One  of  the  chief  functions  of  a 
schoolmaster  is  to  foster  a  thirst  for  learning  and  to 


164  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

initiate  his  students  into  the  proper  use  of  a  Hbrary. 
Without  this  his  work  as  a  teacher  is  only  partially 
done. 

Very  much  of  the  work  done  in  the  schoolroom 
has  a  tendency  to  disgust  pupils  with  books  by 
setting  before  them  the  mastery  of  the  text  as  the 
chief  business  of  life  ;  thus  study  becomes  a  drudgery, 
a  task,  a  burden,  which  at  the  earliest  opportunity  is 
abandoned.  Study  should  be  made  interesting  and 
school  work  a  delight  by  bringing  it  into  such  rela- 
tions with  comprehensive  reading  as  to  show  that  all 
school  exercises  facilitate  the  intelligent  use  of  books. 
The  public  library  with  its  treasures  should  stand  as 
a  goal  toward  which  each  courser  in  the  school  race 
is  bending. 

Especially  does  the  library  lend  its  generous  aid 
in  preventing  narrowness  of  view,  pettiness  of 
attainment,  bigotry  of  opinion,  and  the  insufferable 
conceit  which  are  the  possible  growths  of  the  hotbed 
of  the  schoolroom.  The  untrained  reader  may  have 
breadth  without  depth,  the  unread  student  may  have 
intensity  without  either  depth  or  breadth.  Neither 
has  symmetry.  Thorough  training  in  the  school, 
supplemented  by  a  wise  and  generous  use  of  the 
public  library,  tends  to  give  depth,  breadth,  and 
catholicity.     The  school  trains,  the  library  enriches. 

The  public  library  may  be  especially  helpful  to  the 
school  by  the  invaluable  aid  it  can  render  to  advanced 
students  in  the  preparation  of  essays.  The  librarian, 
by  furnishing  them  copious  references,  puts  them  in 
the  way  of  ascertaining  the  best   things  that  have 


TRAINING    TO    USE  BOOKS.  165 

already    been    said    on    the    topics    they  propose    to 
discuss. 

In  every  public  library  there  should  be  a  depart- 
ment devoted  to  pedagogical  literature.  In  no  period 
of  our  history  has  there  been  such  a  demand  among 
teachers  and  school  officers  for  this  class  of  books. 
It  is  one  of  the  most  encouraging  signs  of  the  times ; 
and  to  foster  the  movement,  deepening  and  directing 
it,  is  an  urgent  duty  of  the  hour.  In  what  better 
way  can  this  be  done  than  by  setting  apart  in  every 
public  library  an  alcove  for  such  publications  .-*  Such 
a  collection  of  books  would  develop  among  teachers 
a  professional  spirit  and  would  give  to  the  reading 
public  a  more  definite  knowledge  of  the  ideal  of 
culture  toward  which  the  raoro  aggressive  teachers 
are  aiming. 


XII. 
TRAINING   FOR   FREEDOM. 


As   love  is  inflamed  only  by  love,  as  thought   is   fired   only   by 
thought,  so  freedom  alone  can  kindle  freedom. 

W.  N.  Hailman. 


Bear  constantly  in  mind  the  truth  that  the  aim  of  your  discipline 

should  be  to  produce  a  self-governing  being;   not  to  produce  a  being 

to  be  governed  by  others. 

Herbert  Spencer. 


As  the  mind  grows,  the  tone  of  authority  in  the  teacher  must 
gradually  relax  and  justify  itself  by  an  appeal  to  the  intelligence  and 
moral  sense  of  the  pupil. 

J.   D.    MORELL. 

P'rom  simply  commanding  he  should  proceed  to  explain  the 
reasons  of  his  commands;  from  these  again  to  the  expression  of 
desires  and  the  manifestations  of  a  generous  confidence;  and  from 
these  to  the  frequent  option  and  discretion  of  the  child,  preparatory 
to  the  moment  of  giving  him  entirely  into  his  own  hands. 

Dr.  Harris. 


XII. 
TRAINING    FOR    FREEDOM. 

Do  not  train  hoys  to  learning  by  force  and  harshness.  —  PLATO. 

It  is  apparent  to  every  observer  that  the  discipline 
in  our  schools  is  much  milder  now  than  formerly. 
Fifty  years  ago  corporal  punishment  was  both  by  far 
more  frequent  and  more  severe  than  at  the  present 
time.  The  rod  as  an  instrument  of  discipline  is  fast 
disappearing,  and  in  many  places  is  either  absolutely 
forbidden  by  law  or  totally  abolished  by  public 
opinion.  There  are  fewer  rules  and  regulations,  a 
more  frequent  appeal  to  reason  and  persuasion  rather 
than  to  fear  of  punishment,  pupils  are  treated  more 
as  equals  and  less  as  subordinates,  greater  freedom  is 
allowed  them  in  sports,  studies,  and  life,  and  in  many 
cases  they  are  admitted  to  a  share  in  the  government 
of  the  school  and  college. 

This  relaxation  of  discipline  may  be  regarded  as  a 
lowering  of  the  standard,  a  yielding  to  a  weak  laissez 
faire  spirit  that  underestimates  the  value  of  law  and 
the  merit  of  obedience  and  unduly  exalts  the  indi- 
vidual. By  some  it  is  looked  upon  as  a  sure  sign  of 
the  degeneracy  of  the  times  and  as  ominous  of 
future  disaster  to  the  Republic.  It  is  supposed  to 
result  either  from  indifference,  negligence,  weakness, 

169 


170 


STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 


or  from  false  views  of  law  and  government  enter- 
tained  by  teachers.  The  remedy  for  this  state  of 
things  is  supposed  by  those  who  entertain  this  view 
to  lie  in  a  return  to  former  methods.  Greater  stress 
is  to  be  laid  upon  the  majesty  of  law,  the  dignity  of 
the  master,  the  sin  of  disobedience,  and  the  merit 
there  is  in  unhesitating,  prompt  submission  to  right- 
ful authority.  It  is  pointed  out  that  every  govern- 
ment must  be  a  government  of  law,  and  that 
obedience  is  not  only  a  cardinal  virtue  but  a  prime 
condition  of  the  continuance  of  a  republican  govern- 
ment. That  children  at  school  and  boys  in  college 
are  to  be  taught  habits  of  obedience  and  that  a  failure 
to  do  this  imperils  the  foundations  of  society  itself. 

This  view  of  the  situation  has  an  ^^lement  of  truth 
in  it  and  challenges  serious  thought  If  it  is  cor- 
rect we  are  in  danger.  Our  liberties  are  in  jeopardy. 
We  should  make  haste  to  institute  a  reform  in  our 
schools  with  respect  to  discipline. 

But  there  is  another  view  of  the  matter.  This 
mildness  of  discipline  is  a  sign  of  progress,  not  of 
retrogression.  It  is  a  symptom  of  health,  not  of 
disease  ;  an  omen  of  good,  not  of  evil. 

The  fundamental  principle  that  underlies  our  sys- 
tem of  government  is  personal  liberty.  We  are  a 
"  government  of  the  people,  by  the  people,  and  for 
the  people."  This  accepted  axiom  in  our  political 
philosophy  must  of  necessity  condition  all  our  think- 
ing on  political  and  social  subjects.  We  must  either 
deny  this  premise  or  accept  all  that  is  implied  in  it. 
The  enthronement  of  the  people,  the  many,  uncrowns 


TRAINING   FOR  FREEDOM.  17  I 

the  king,  the  despot.  In  exalting  the  many  to 
supreme  authority  we  Hft  up  the  individual.  The 
man  takes  the  place  of  the  ruler.  With  the  banish- 
ment of  kings  goes  all  the  pageantry  of  the  king- 
dom. The  great  procession  of  crowned  heads,  lords, 
and  ladies  at  the  Queen's  Jubilee  was  an  anachronism 
even  in  royal  England.  It  would  be  impossible  and 
absurd  in  America,  at  least  in  any  more  serious  form 
than  as  one  of  Barnum's  pageants.  We  cannot 
teach  Americans  to  bow  the  knee  to  mere  authority, 
however  venerable  and  imposing.  The  humblest 
American  regards  himself,  and  rightly,  as  the  peer  in 
real  dignity  of  any  monarch  that  wears  a  crown.  He 
too  is  a  ruler,  a  veritable  sovereign. 

All  of  our  institutions  are  modified  and  controlled 
by  this  all-powerful,  ever-present  spirit  of  freedom. 
We  recognize  no  caste,  no  aristocracy,  no  classes. 
All  are  on  a  political  level.  The  highest  office  is 
open  to  the  lowest  person  if  he  will  fit  himself  for  it. 
The  ballot  is  free.  Every  man's  home  is  his  castle. 
Freedom  is  his  heritage.  Liberty  is  not  a  privilege 
but  a  right.  Any  unnecessary  restriction  of  the 
individual  not  called  for  by  the  good  of  the  many  is 
a  usurpation,  a  crime.  These  notions,  embodied  in 
our  Declaration  of  Independence,  wrought  into  our 
Constitution,  woven  into  our  laws,  inculcated  from 
the  pulpit,  on  the  rostrum,  at  the  fireside,  permeate 
our  literature,  penetrate  every  social  institution,  and 
find  their  way  into  every  schoolroom.  The  great 
body  of  our  schoolmasters,  native  and  "  to  the  man- 
ner born,"  have   themselves    been   educated  in  this 


172  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

philosophy  and  can  no  more  escape  its  influence  than 
they  can  change  their  character. 

A  petty  officer  trained  at  West  Point  —  the  only 
unrepublican  institution  remaining  since  slavery  dis- 
appeared —  may  play  the  lordling  over  his  helpless 
subjects,  and  may  make  much  of  mere  authority, 
but  the  teacher  trained  in  an  American  home  and 
in  our  high  and  normal  schools  has  little  conception 
of  what  authority  means  apart  from  the  highest  con- 
sideration for  the  weal  of  the  governed.  Our  politi- 
cal philosophy  necessitates  a  milder  discipline  in 
family  and  school  to  correspond  with  the  milder  rule 
of  the  State.  The  nearer  the  government  approaches 
to  an  autonomy,  the  nearer  the  individual  approaches 
perfect  freedom,  the  more  liberal  must  be  all  the 
institutions  under  which  he  lives. 

The  great  work  set  for  the  schools  of  America  is 
the  preparation  of  the  rising  generation  for  citizen- 
ship in  a  free  republic.  They  are  to  take  their  places 
as  freemen,  exercise  the  privilege  of  voting,  and 
become  at  once  law-abiding  subjects  and  intelligent 
lawmakers.  What  is  the  best  preparation  for  such  a 
life .''  Does  it  demand  greater  rigor  in  school  disci- 
pline or  greater  liberty  }  Should  the  teacher  empha- 
size the  idea  of  authority  or  the  idea  of  freedom } 
Of  course  there  must  be  authority  in  the  family,  the 
school,  and  in  the  State.  And  children  are  to  be 
instructed  in  the  duty  and  held  to  the  practice  of 
obedience.  Wilful  disobedience  to  law  at  school, 
disregard  of  rightful  authority  at  home,  are  to  be 
punished,  together  with  crime,  disloyalty,  and  treason 


TRAINING   FOR   FREEDOM.  1^3 

against  the  State.  Lawlessness,  anarchy,  and  mob 
violence  are  to  be  held  up  in  their  true  light  as  not 
only  hostile  to  the  State,  subversive  of  established 
order,  hurtful  to  society,  but  also  as  inimical  to  the 
best  interests  of  the  individual.  Liberty  is  not 
license.  Liberty  is  only  self-imposed  law.  The 
highest  conception  of  freedom  is  the  action  of  a 
divine  Being  who  knows  no  limitation  ssave  those 
that  are  self-imposed.  But  these  restrictions  are 
real.  God  cannot  lie.  The  Judge  of  all  the  earth 
must  do  right.  He  is  free  because  his  actions  origi- 
nate in  self.  He  is  a  law  to  himself,  but  he  is  law. 
Necessarily  there  can  be  but  one  absolutely  free 
Being  in  the  universe.  All  others  must  be  subject. 
Yet  the  highest  conception  of  moral  life  is  freedom, 
where  all  action  is  self-originated.  Enlightened 
reason,  sensitive  conscience,  and  an  upright  will  are 
the  three  great  factors  in  the  moral  life  that  give  dig- 
nity to  action  and  ennoblement  to  the  actor.  These 
are  the  man.  When  reason  recognizes  truth,  con- 
science urges  to  duty,  and  the  will  executes  the  right 
for  its  own  sake,  the  man  is  free,  is  noble,  is  divine. 
In  so  far  as  he  obeys  law  from  low  motives  or  from 
compulsion  he  is  no  longer  free.  Compulsory  acts 
are  not  virtuous  acts.  Virtue  is  voluntary  conformity 
to  right. 

A  child  that  grows  up  under  subjection  to  author- 
ity, doing  from  day  to  day  simply  what  is  required 
and  because  it  is  required,  judging  himself  and  being 
judged  by  others  by  the  standard  of  conformity  to 
statute  law,    obedience   to  authority,    is    not    a  free 


174 


STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 


being,  does  not  enjoy  liberty,  and  fails  utterly  of 
preparation  for  citizenship  in  a  free  State.  He  may 
be  harmless,  innocent,  peaceable,  law-abiding,  up 
right,  a  good  subject,  but  he  is  not  necessarily  a 
good  citizen,  much  less  a  good  man.  To  be  a  good 
citizen,  a  useful  member  of  a  free  society,  one  must 
have  on  all  matters  of  moral  relations  to  his  fellow- 
men  an  ethical  code  in  the  life  :  he  must  not  obey 
the  law  but  live  it.  To  become  fitted  for  this  e.xalted 
state  the  child  must  early  be  trained  to  govern  his 
own  actions,  to  set  bounds  to  his  own  passions  and 
desires,  to  subject  himself  to  reason's  sway.  The 
only  discipline  that  fits  for  freedom   is  liberty. 

The  trouble  with  most  parents  and  teachers  is  that 
they  govern  too  much  and  train  too  little.  Despot- 
ism breeds  lawlessness.  The  child  overgoverned  at 
home  rushes  into  wild  excesses  abroad.  A  people 
ruled  with  a  rod  of  iron  rebel.  Pharaoh's  sceptre  is 
broken  by  Moses'  rod.  Nihilism  is  the  outgrowth  of 
absolutism.  The  evils  that  threaten  American 
society  are  exotics  transplanted  from  the  lands 
where  bayonets  rule. 

If  freedom  is  man's  normal  state,  he  must  early  be 
prepared  for  it  by  being  treated  as  a  free  being.  It 
is  a  serious  misconception  of  human  nature  to  sup- 
pose that  the  child  is  not  fit  for  freedom  till  he 
arrives  at  maturity.  Even  in  infancy  there  are  indi- 
cations of  the  power  of  self-control.  The  babe  soon 
learns  to  suppress  his  cries  and  to  control  his  temper. 
The  little  child  avoids  danger,  regulates  his  sports, 
forms  his  own  plans,  and  executes  his  own  designs. 


TRAINING   FOR   FREEDOM.  1 75 

He  can  easily  be  taught  not  only  to  recognize  the 
reasonableness  of  the  requirements  made  of  him 
when  presented  to  him,  but  to  discern  it  for  himself. 
He  learns  to  reason  and  to  govern  himself  by  reason. 
A  school  may  be  largely  self-governed  and  well  gov- 
erned. It  is  true  that  children  are  ignorant  and 
Aveak,  and  have  besides  an  element  of  self-will, 
caprice,  viciousness,  that  needs  education  and  sup- 
port and  restraint.  There  must  be,  in  every  school, 
checks,  a  veto-power.  Everywhere  in  society  there 
are  these  limitations  of  the  individual.  Even  majori- 
ties must  respect  the  written  constitution  as  well  as 
the  rights  of  the  minority.  In  all  free  states  there  is 
a  senate  set  over  against  an  assembly.  There  is  an 
executive  armed  with  a  veto-power,  and  over  all  a 
court  to  guard  the  constitution  from  infraction  by 
the  state  itself. 

So  there  should  be  in  the  school  the  recognized 
necessity  of  a  body  empowered  to  check,  control,  or 
modify  the  rule  of  the  mass  of  students  when  called 
for.  They  must  not  be  left  to  themselves.  But  it 
must  be  a  restriction  of  mere  authority,  arbitrary 
power  only  when  reason  fails.  The  occasion  that 
calls  for  its  exercise  must  be  extraordinary.  The 
students  of  even  lower-grade  schools  are  competent 
to  govern  themselves  in  a  large  degree  and  should  be 
encouraged  to  do  so. 

True,  there  will  be  mistakes,,  but  the  evil  resulting 
from  mistakes  may  furnish  occasions  for  instruction. 
Men  learn  from  their  mistakes  :  why  should  not  chil- 
dren .''     The  discipline  of  consequences  is  a  recog 


176  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

nized  element  in  God's  education  of  the  race.  To 
feel  the  force  of  their  own  mistakes,  to  search  out 
the  far-reaching  consequences  of  their  own  actions, 
to  devise  remedial  measures,  to  sedulously  avoid  a 
repetition  of  them,  is  itself  an  invaluable  training, 
an  indispensable  experience  in  preparation  for  life's 
active  duties.  Of  course  it  is  not  intended  to  leave 
children  or  pupils  of  any  age  to  rush  into  serious 
dangers  and  to  suffer  the  dire  results  of  ignorance 
and  folly  from  which  the  experience  and  authority  of 
their  parents  or  teachers  should  have  saved  them. 
But  suffering  minor  penalties,  flowing  naturally  out 
of  violated  law,  is  often  a  sure  means  of  leading  the 
offender  to  a  wise  precaution  that  saves  him  from 
greater  evils. 

There  is  a  vast  difference  between  learning  and 
wisdom.  A  fool  may  be  learned,  or  at  least  a  learned 
man  may  be  a  fool.  It  is  one  thing  to  learn  geome- 
try by  studying  the  demonstrations  of  Euclid.  It  is 
quite  another  and  far  nobler  thing  to  learn  to  geome- 
trize  by  inventing  one's  theorems  and  demonstra- 
tions. So  too  one  may  be  a  master  in  ethics  so  far 
as  knowledge  goes,  but  a  weakling  in  the  practice  of 
virtue.  It  is  not  sufficient  that  we  practise  what  we 
have  learned  from  books  and  masters.  There  is  a 
moral  fibre,  a  sturdy,  manly  virtue,  developed  by 
grappling  with  practical  moral  problems,  overcoming 
temptations,  resisting  evil,  evolving  principles  out  of 
our  experiences.  An  ethical  code  born  of  life  may 
lack  in  scientific  completeness,  but  it  is  more  likely 
to  be  forceful  in  guiding  conduct  than  any  set  of 
memorized  precepts. 


TRAINING   FOR  FREEDOM.  I  77 

Pupils  are  to  be  governed.  They  are  to  be  taught 
moral  precepts.  They  are  not  by  any  means  to  be 
left  to  themselves.  But  what  is  insisted  on  most 
strenuously  is  that  they  are  to  be  trained  to  think  for 
themselves  on  moral  subjects  and  to  regulate  their 
conduct  by  the  results  of  their  own  thinking.  They 
must  be  thrown  gradually  and  wisely  upon  them- 
selves. The  appeal  must  be  made  more  and  more  to 
conscience  and  reason  and  less  and  less  to  fear  and 
power. 

This  does  not  prevent  but  rather  necessitates  the 
clearest  and  most  explicit  inculcation  of  wise  pre- 
cepts and  the  exposition  of  fundamental  ideas  of 
right  and  wrong,  justice,  equity,  loyalty,  truthfulness, 
fidelity,  and  all  the  civic  and  social  virtues.  The 
highest  ideal  is  ever  to  be  presented  to  the  young  as 
the  goal  of  their  endeavor.  This  ideal  becoming 
gradually  clearer  in  outline,  more  complete  in  detail, 
at  length  takes  its  place  in  the  imagination  as  an 
abiding  presence,  a  silent,  forceful  mentor.  The 
child  trained  at  home  and  in  school  to  judge  his  own 
actions  by  this  ideal  standard  has  an  inward  prompt- 
ing toward  the  right  under  all  circumstances  and  in 
all  places.  This  is  a  safeguard  in  temptation,  an 
encouragement  in  trial,  a  nemesis  in  wrong,  and  a 
reward  in  victory. 

The  day  of  blind  submission  to  human  authority  is 
fast  passing  away.  Absolutism  is  a  bygone.  In 
philosophy,  religion,  science,  and  in  politics  the  same 
great  phenomenon  is  seen  of  an  awakening  con- 
sciousness   of   freedom.     The    old    state    of    things, 


178  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

despots  and  dungeons,  inquisitors  and  inquisitions, 
masters  and  floggings,  are  giving  way  to  written  con- 
stitutions and  the  ballot,  the  open  Bible  and  private 
judgment,  and  the  teacher  ruling  by  love.  We  can- 
not restore  the  old  regime.  Once  gone  it  is  gone 
forever.  To  prepare  our  children  to  live  and  act  well 
their  part  in  this  modern  age  in  our  country,  we 
must  educate  them  for  freedom  by  training  them  in 
freedom's  ways.  Education  takes  on  new  signifi- 
cance, involves  new  methods,  necessitates  a  new 
spirit,  when  it  sets  for  itself  the  high  and  holy  task 
of  training  a  whole  vast  generation  of  free  men  and 
women  who  shall  be  adequate  for  the  duties  and  pre- 
pared for  the  privileges  of  lives  of  rational,  social, 
political,  religious  freedom. 


Xlll. 
METHODOLOGY. 


The  study  of  methods  of  instruction  constitutes  one  of  the  most 

important  divisions  of  educational  science.  ^ 

Gabriel  Compayre. 


Nothing  so  much  clears  a  learner's  way,  helps  him  so  much  on 

in  it,  and  makes  him  go  easy  and  so  far  in  any  inquiry  as  a   good 

method. 

John  Locke. 


Learning  teacheth  more  in  one  year  than  experience  in  twenty, 
and  learning  teacheth  safely,  when  experience  maketh  more  miserable 
than  wise.     He  hazardeth  sore  that  waxeth  wise  by  experience. 

Roger  Ascham. 


Formal  logic  as  the  exposition  of  the  structure  of  mind,  the  form 

of  its  functions,  is  the  most  important  part  of  psychology,  and  a  key  to 

all  the  unconscious  activities  of  the  mind. 

W.  T.  Harris. 


XIII. 
METHODOLOGY. 

Method  will  teach  you  to  win  time.  —  GoETHE. 

The  highest  outcome  of  instruction  is  not 
knowledge  only,  but  power,  and  particularly  the 
power  to  think.  One  needs  to  know  not  merely 
facts,  but  facts  in  their  relation  to  other  facts ;  not 
only  that  a  thing  is  so,  but  also  why  it  is  so.  It  is 
not  enough  that  one  should  know  a  science :  he 
needs  to  be  able  to  construct  a  science.  To  learn 
to  philosophize  is  more  than  learning  philosophy. 
Instruction  that  merely  imparts  information  falls 
short  of  awakening  power. 

In  order  that  teaching  may  stimulate  thought- 
power  it  must  result  from  thought-power.  The 
pupil  thinks  as  the  master  thinks  ;  he  unconsciously 
imitates  the  master's  method.  If  the  master  teaches 
without  a  plan,  the  pupil's  knowledge  will  be  form- 
less and  his  mind  chaotic.  If  the  teacher  follows 
an  intelligent  system,  sets  before  himself  each  day 
a  definite  purpose,  and  arranges  his  material  with 
nice  discrimination,  according  to  a  plan,  adapting 
means  to  ends,  the  pupil's  mind  will  be  exercised  in 
thinking  correctly  and  will  take  on  a  logical  habit. 

As  a  preparation  for  this  kind  of  work  the  would- 
be  teacher  should  study  not  simply  formal   logic  as 

181 


I  8  2  STUDIES  IN  PhD  AGOG  Y. 

a  science  of  thinking,  but  he  should  study  also  with 
greatest  care  methodology,  or  the  science  of  in- 
struction. This  is  a  broad  subject  and  can  be  set 
forth  here  only  in  outline. 

There  are  certain  great  general  principles  under- 
lying the  work  of  instruction  that  are  followed  more 
or  less  closely  by  every  successful  teacher.  He 
need  not  necessarily  be  conscious  of  them  any  more 
than  the  successful  writer  must  be  distinctly  con- 
scious of  the  principles  of  rhetoric,  or  the  orator  of 
the  principles  of  elocution.  Rhetoric  is  a  systematic 
statement  of  the  laws  of  good  writing,  and  logic  of 
the  laws  of  thought.  So  methodology  is  the  orderly 
arrangement  of  the  principles  of  good  teaching. 
Practice  precedes  theory.  Good  speakers  antedate 
treatises  on  elocution  ;  men  reasoned  soundly  long 
before  the  science  of  logic  took  form ;  and  great 
teachers  taught  long  and  well  before  any  attempt 
was  made  to  reduce  to  systematic  statement  the 
principles  that  guided  them. 

Rhetoric  is  a  guide  to  successful  composition, 
logic  abridges  the  labor  of  thinking,  and  the  study 
of  methodology  may  prove  most  helpful  to  him  who 
aspires  to  succeed  in  teaching.  It  is  no  argument 
against  the  study  of  rhetoric  and  logic  to  say  that 
men  ignorant  of  their  rules  have  been  successful 
writers  and  speakers.  Genius  is  a  law  to  itself. 
Men  of  rare  insight  into  truth  come  unaided  to  a 
knowledge  of  underlying  principles  which  need  to 
be  formulated,  illustrated,  and  taught  to  the  average 
mortal. 


ME THODOLOGY.  I  8 3 

Method  should  be  distmguished  from  methods. 
The  general  principles  of  teaching  are  common  to 
instruction  in  any  branch  of  knowledge,  differing 
only  in  application  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
subject  taught.  There  is  a  method  of  teaching 
geography,  a  method  of  teaching  arithmetic,  a 
method  of  teaching  grammar,  and  a  method  of 
teaching  every  branch  of  human  knowledge.  To 
attain  the  highest  success  in  any  field  of  instruction, 
one  must  needs  study  method  in  its  relation  to 
that  particular  branch  of  science  that  he  wishes 
to  teach. 

But  one  who  studies  method  only  in  connection 
with  some  particular  branch  of  instruction  is  liable 
to  be  narrow  and  one-sided.  One  who  tries  to  learn 
painting  by  studying  Raphael  becomes  a  copyist, 
as  pointed  out  by  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds.  While  one 
who  studies  the  principles  of  painting  as  illustrated 
by  Raphael  and  the  other  great  artists  may  himself 
become  an  artist,  an  original  creator.  One  who 
should  study  rhetoric  by  the  examination  and  imi- 
tation of  the  writings  of  Carlyle  only  would  never 
become  a  master  of  style. 

One  who  studies  methods,  and  not  method,  is 
liable  to  mistake  devices  for  principles,  and  clever- 
ness for  science.  He  is  especially  liable  to  fall  into 
the  error  of  supposing  that  there  is  only  one  method 
of  teaching  a  subject,  and  that  the  particular  one 
which  he  has  learned.  The  criticism  of  pedantry 
often  brought  against  normal  students,  and  of 
charlatanism    against    normal    instruction,    finds    its 


184  ■S TUDIES  I/V  PEDA GOGY. 

explanation  at  times  in  the  failure  to  study 
methodology  and  in  the  undue  prominence  given 
to  methods. 

As  preliminary  to  the  study  of  methodology  there 
should  be  a  course  in  logic.  In  every  act  of 
teaching  there  are  two  parties,  the  teacher  and  the 
taught,  the  instructor  and  the  pupil.  The  teacher 
cannot  teach  except  in  so  far  as  the  pupil  learns. 
Knowledge  -  giving  is  conditioned  on  knowledge- 
getting.  The  one  cannot  go  on  without  the  other. 
He  who  teaches,  therefore,  must  first  of  all  have 
regard  to  the  laws  according  to  which  one  learns. 
If  he  violates  or  ignores  these  laws,  he  is  doomed  to 
failure.  Logic  in  its  broad  sense  has  to  do  with 
acquisition,  and  one  who  teaches  should  have  an 
explicit  knowledge  of  those  processes  of  mind  which 
are  engaged  in  attaining  knowledge.  Without  at- 
tempting a  full  exposition  of  the  matter  here,  let 
it  suffice  to  indicate  some  of  the  more  prominent 
topics  that  constitute  a  sort  of  presupposition  to 
method. 

The  sources  of  knowledge  lire  either  observation, 
consciousness,  intuition,  testimony,  authority,  or 
thinking.  These  should  be  studied,  and  the  pecul- 
iar function  of  each  clearly  discriminated. 

Especially  important  is  a  knowledge  of  the 
processes  of  analysis,  comparison,  judgment,  infer- 
ence, induction,  generalization,  classification,  de- 
duction, verification,  and  proof.  Many  a  young 
teacher  undertakes  the  important  task  of  instructing 
young  minds  without  ever    having    spent    an    hour 


METIJODOLOGY.  185 

in  the  study  of  these  processes.  Logic  is  not 
ordinarily  taught  in  high  schools,  from  which  issue 
forth  year  by  year  so  many  teachers,  and  even  in 
normal  schools  the  subject  is  likely  to  be  over- 
looked. 

Closely  allied  to  these  logical  processes  are  others 
that  belong  rather  to  imparting  instruction  than 
to  acquiring  knowledge.  Among  these  are :  defi- 
nition, description,  narration,  illustration,  arrange- 
ment. Each  of  these  processes  has  an  order  and 
laws  of  its  own.  They  need  not  be  set  forth  here. 
They  are  of  the  very  essence  of  instruction.  No 
progress  can  be  made  without  them.  Definition 
may  be  faulty  or  even  false;  description,  inaccurate; 
narration,  obscure  ;  illustration,  non-luminous ;  and 
arrangement,  without  a  plan.  Under  such  circum- 
stances teaching  must  be  weak  and  its  results  very 
unsatisfactory. 

Before  entering  upon  the  work  of  giving  instruc- 
tion on  any  subject  to  a  class  of  pupils  at  school, 
the  teacher  needs  to  consider  three  things. 

First.  The  analysis  of  the  subject.  Every 
science  has  its  logical  articulation  and  can  be 
separated  into  its  distinct  parts.  Most  subjects  can 
be  presented  under  a  very  few  great  topics  with  a 
greater  number  of  sub-topics.  In  thinking,  there 
are  two  great  fundamental  processes,  discrimination 
and  assimilaticni.  In  arithmetic  there  are  two  prime 
operations,  combining  and  separating.  All  the  ani- 
mals of  the  world  may  be  classed  in  five  great 
groups.      Each   topic    can   be    subdivided    into    its 


1 86  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

constituent  parts,  and  these  into  their  parts  or 
elements.  It  is  not  until  this  complete  analysis  of 
the  subject,  following  the  lines  of  the  organic 
structure  or  logical  constitution  of  the  matter,  has 
been  finished  that  the  teacher  is  prepared  to 
enter  upon  the  work  of  exposition.  He  cannot 
intelligently  set  forth  to  others  what  is  not  clearly 
grasped  by  himself. 

Method  seeks  to  determine  those  recognized 
principles  of  division  by  whose  aid  any  subject  may 
be  resolved  into  its  topics.  Nothing  is  more  ser- 
viceable to  the  young  teacher  than  this  preliminary 
survey  of  arithmetic,  grammar,  geography,  and  other 
common-school  studies  in  their  topics,  or  outlines. 
The  logic  of.  the  science  is  studied  apart  from  the 
multitude  of  facts  which  it  embraces. 

Second.  When  this  preliminary  survey  is  com- 
pleted, the  next  great  question  for  the  teacher  to 
determine  is  the  order  of  presentation  of  the  topics. 

Analysis  and  synthesis.  It  is  a  much  disputed 
c[uestion  what  the  nature,  function,  value,  and  re- 
lation to  each  other  of  these  two  processes  are  in 
teaching.  By  some  they  are  regarded  as  the 
essential  elements  in  method,  while  others  would 
discard  them  entirely.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  every 
subject  presented  to  the  child,  except  primitive  ideas, 
such  as  hardness,  smoothness,  straight  line,  needs 
to  be  analyzed  and  his  attention  must  be  directed 
successively  to  its  parts,  or  qualities.  A  sentence 
is  made  up  of  words  ;  words,  of  letters  ;  letters,  of 
parts.     The    earth    comprises    land    and   water.      A 


METhODOLOGY,  1 87 

metal  has  lustre,  specific  gravity,  and  other  qualities. 
Government  comprises  three  departments,  legisla- 
tive, judicial,  and  executive.  In  all  subjects  the 
instructor  must  resort  to  analysis,  and  must  lead 
his  pupils  by  its  means  from  the  contemplation  of  a 
whole  to  its  parts.  In  cases  of  review,  and  in 
presenting  new  subjects  to  minds  mature  enough  to 
follow  a  process  of  logical  division,  the  analytic 
process  saves  time  and  labor,  while  in  some  subjects, 
as  in  geometry,  for  example,  the  process  is  neces- 
sarily and  almost  wholly  analytical. 

In  many  cases  it  is  better,  particularly  with  young 
pupils,  to  begin  synthetically  by  presenting  one 
thing,  or  part,  at  a  time,  and,  by  joining  part  to  part, 
lead  to  successive  generalizations  until  the  mind 
grasps  the  subject  as  a  whole.  Elementary  geog- 
raphy should  be  so  taught.  History,  in  its  earlier 
stages.  Natural  history  and  the  physical  sciences 
should  always  be  taught  to  beginners  synthetically. 

In  teaching  synthetically,  resort  must  frequently 
be  had  to  analysis  ir,  making  clear  difficult  points 
that  arise,  and  in  reviewing  the  work  accomplished 
at  different  stages  of  progress. 

The  two  processes  are  parts  of  one  operation,  and 
can  seldom  be  wholly  separated.  They  explain  each 
other. 

Modern  methods  of  instruction  emphasize  the 
importance  of  the  synthetic  process  of  presenting 
in  the  introduction  of  a  subject  facts  and  concrete 
instances  rather  than  definitions ;  processes  rather 
than  rules  ;  induction  rather  than  deduction. 


1 88  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

Nothing  is  clearer  than  the  necessity  of  going 
from  the  concrete,  that  which  appeals  to  the  senses, 
to  the  abstract.  Object -teaching  and  objective 
teaching  play  an  important  role  in  all  training  of 
the  young,  and  in  the  introduction  of  new  subjects 
in  most  stages  of  teaching.  Distinctness,  clearness, 
and  vividness  are  often  unattainable  withou  the 
use  of  objects,  models,  or  pictures.  As  soon  as 
possible  objects  should  be  discarded  lest  they  foster 
an  indolent  habit  of  thinking. 

Scarcely  less  obvious  is  the  law  of  proceeding 
from  the  known  to  the  unknown.  Knowledge  begins 
in  sense  discrimination  and  individual  experiences 
of  the  qualities  of  matter.  It  continues  by  constant 
assimilation  of  new  experiences  to  the  old.  Every 
new  experience  is  compared  with  the  old  and 
grasped  by  its  resemblance  or  its  contrast.  In 
number  a  child  first  learns  to  count ;  then  adding 
is  another  way  of  counting ;  multiplying,  a  short 
way  of  adding ;  squaring,  a  distinct  way  of  multi- 
plying. Seeking  to  connect  what  is  to  be  taught 
with  what  has  already  been  learned  is  the  most 
economic  way  of  increasing  the  stock  of  knowledge. 

Ideas  and  words.  No  absolute  law  can  be  laid 
down  further  than  to  say  that  in  early  childhood 
usually  the  idea  should  first  be  awakened  and  then 
the  name  given,  but  even  here  are  many  exceptions. 

The  laws  of  dependence,  of  cause  and  effect,  of 
sequence  in  time,  of  contiguity,  of  contrast,  of 
variety,  and  of  passing  from  the  simple  to  the 
complex,  all  claim  notice  in  any  discussion  of 
method. 


METHODOLOGY.  1 89 

Third.  Having  settled  upon  what  topics  he  will 
present  and  the  order  of  their  presentation,  several 
other  matters  will  claim  attention,  such  as  the 
following :  — 

Oral  teaching.  What  are  its  limits,  its  advantages, 
disadvantages,  and  condition  ? 

Textbooks.  How  far  shall  the  student  be  re- 
quired to  master  the  exact  words  of  the  book? 
How  shall  the  book  be  supplemented  } 

Assignment  of  lessons.  How  shall  lessons  be 
assigned,  and  how  much }  What  explanations  or 
hints  and  suggestions  shall  be  given } 

Preparation  of  lessons.  What  help  shall  the 
student  receive,  and  in  what  way  1 

The  recitation.  How  shall  this  be  conducted,  by 
question  and  answer  or  topically  } 

Reviews,  tests,  examinations,  marking,  ranking, 
all  have  a  bearing  upon  successful  instruction. 

Second  to  no  other  in  the  whole  subject  of  in- 
struction is  that  of  the  motives  that  should  be 
appealed  to  and  the   best  means  of  arousing  them. 

Methodology  includes  also  an  investigation  into 
the  educational  values  absolute  and  relative  of 
different  branches  of  learning. 

It  will  be  seen  that  these  elements  of  method  can 
be  studied  aside  from  the  teaching  of  any  particular 
branch  of  instruction,  and  they  are  involved  more  or 
less  in  all  teaching. 

The  study  of  methods  in  any  special  branches  will 
be  greatly  facilitated  and  be  lifted  upon  a  higher 
philosophical  plane,  if  it  follows  as  an  application  of 


IQO 


STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 


these  general  elements  according  to  the  peculiarities 
of  the  subject  to  be  taught.  Methodology  may  be 
studied  after  students  have  investigated  the  method 
of  teaching  one  subject. 

A  comprehensive  study  of  methodology  as  here 
outlined,  until  the  fundamental  principles  are  clearly 
grasped  and  their  varied  application  in  teaching  the 
several  branches  of  science  familiarly  understood, 
will  make  the  teacher's  work  scientific  instead  of 
empirical.  It  will  greatly  facilitate  it,  enabling  him 
to  accomplish  not  only  what  could  not  otherwise  be 
done,  but  to  reach  his  ends  quickly,  surely,  and 
easily.  Such  preparation  will  enable  him,  while 
imparting  knowledge,  to  guide  the  minds  of  his 
pupils  so  that  they  will  be  led  to  use  all  their  powers 
appropriately,  actively,  efficiently,  so  as  both  to 
assimilate  the  knowledge  offered  and  also  to  grow 
in  ability  to  observe  and  to  think.  Thus  taught, 
they  may  become  self-reliant,  aggressive,  profound, 
practical  reasoners.  Knowledge  is  transmuted  into 
wisdom    and  instruction  issues  in  power. 


XIV. 

THE   MAN   AND   HIS  METHOa 


Teaching   is  a  lifelong  learning   of   how   to    deal   with   human 

minds. 

Edward  Thring. 


In  education   every  teacher  must  have  some  mode  of  exhibiting 
the  notions  he  has  of  his  art,  and  this  mode  is  his  method. 

Joseph  Payne. 


Machine  methods  are  necessary  wherever  machine  teachers  are 

found. 

John  Hancock. 


He  only  can  teach  who  looks  down  upon  the  elements  of  his 
department  from  the  heights  of  broad  and  solid  attainment. 

M.  B.  Anderson. 

The  health  and  progress  of  every  great  science,  such  as  educa- 
tion, depend  upon  continual  difference,  upon  new  ideas,  and 
experiments  carried  out  to  give  effect  to  such  ideas,  upon  the  never- 
ending  struggle  between  the  many  different  forms  and  methods,  each 
to  excel  the  other.  It  cannot  be  too  often  repeated  that  uniformity 
means  arrest  of  growth  and  consequent  decay;  diversity  means  life, 
growth,  and  adaptation  without  limit. 

'  A  Protest,"  The  Nineteenth  Century,  November,  j888. 


XIV. 

THE    MAN    AND    HIS    METHOD. 

The  true  teacher  teaches  himself:   that  is,  he  impresses  his  own 
character,    his    own    intellectual    and    moral    habits,    on   his    pupils. 

—  Joseph  Alden. 

Standing  one  day  near  the  Mansion  House  in 
London,  my  attention  was  attracted  by  a  somewhat 
extraordinary  turnout.  Addressing  a  policeman  at 
hand,  I  inquired,  "  Whose  carriage  is  that  .-*  "  "  That," 
said  he,  with  severe  and  impressive  dignity,  "  is  the 
Lord  Mayor  and  his  carriage." 

What  struck  me  was  the  magnificence  of  the 
equipage,  the  gilded  wagon,  the  prancing  horses, 
the  liveried  attendants  ;  while  that  which  impressed 
the  sturdy  Briton  was  the  majesty  of  him  who  rode 
within.  I  have  reflected  upon  the  incident  many 
times  since,  and  have  learned  from  it  some  useful 
lessons. 

Much  is  said  in  our  day,  in  reference  to  teaching, 
about  the  importance  of  method.  Schools  have  been 
founded  to  give  instruction  in  method.  It  has  seemed 
to  me,  in  some  instances  certainly,  that  men  had  an 
exaggerated  idea  as  to  the  importance  of  method ; 
that  they  had  given  such  exclusive  attention  to  the 
method  as  to  overlook  the  man. 

The  man  is  greater  than  his  method.     The  power 


194  STUDIES  LV  PEDAGOGY. 

of  every  true  teacher  is  in  himself,  his  character, 
his  attainments,  his  spirit,  his  personality.  A  robust, 
vigorous  man,  with  high  aims  and  enthusiastic  devo- 
tion to  his  work,  deeply  in  love  with  any  great 
subject  in  which  he  has  steeped  his  own  soul,  will 
awaken  something  of  his  own  zeal  in  the  minds  of 
his  pupils,  kindle  within  them  a  love  of  learning, 
arouse  their  dormant  energies,  call  into  exercise 
their  awakening  faculties,  impart  to  them  of  his 
own  knowledge,  and  incite  them  to  independent 
research.  His  method  is  simply  his  way  of  doing 
this.  He  originates  his  method.  Socrates,  with  his 
devout  love  of  truth,  his  unfeigned  humility,  his  keen 
detection  of  the  shallowness  of  men's  pretensions, 
had  a  way  of  bringing  them  by  a  series  of  questions 
to  a  consciousness  of  their  own  ignorance  and 
revealing  to  them  the  necessity  of  a  reexamination 
of  the  very  foundations  of  their  pretended  knowledge. 
Not  the  Socratic  method,  but  the  man  Socrates,  was 
the  mighty  power  in  Athens.  A  public  instructor 
who  thinks  to  become  great  merely  by  the  use  of  the 
Socratic  method  of  questioning  adopts  the  policy  of 
the  ass  which  donned  the  lion's  skin. 

A  teacher  may  be  great  in  spite  of  his  method. 
The  methods  of  Michael  Angelo  were  faulty,  and  it 
is  not  difficult  for  a  critic  to  point  out  defects  in  his 
work.  Men  of  less  genius  attempting  to  do  as  he 
did  would  meet  only  with  failure ;  nevertheless, 
Michael  Angelo  was  a  great  artist,  his  works  are 
imperishable,  his  name  will  be  as  enduring  as  art 
itself.     The  magnificence  of  his  conceptions,  though 


THE  MAN  AND  HIS  METHOD. 


195 


imperfectly  embodied,  lent  a  new  majesty  to  archi- 
tecture, painting,  and  sculpture,  and  lovers  of  art  go 
in  throngs  to  the  Sistine  Chapel,  and  to  view  his 
matchless  statue  of  Moses.  The  method  of  Pesta- 
lozzi,  crude  and  faulty  though  it  was,  could  not 
entirely  prevent  the  achievement  of  at  least  partial 
success  in  his  philanthropic  schemes.  Carlyle  was 
a  great  writer  in  spite  of  his  barbarous  English.  In 
our  schools  to-day  may  be  found  numerous  teachers 
who,  notwithstanding  the  most  faulty  methods,  are 
accomplishing  great  results,  not  only  in  imparting 
much  useful  instruction,  but  in  awakening  mind, 
developing  character,  and  inciting  to  noble  living. 
Nevertheless,  every  teacher  who  aspires  to  the 
highest  excellence  should  be  master  of  method.  His 
task  is  one  of  infinite  difficulty,  and  calls  not  only 
for  character  of  rare  nobility,  talents  of  high  order, 
and  liberal  learning,  but  also  for  the  greatest  skill  in 
the  adjustment  of  means  to  ends.  Method  is  applied 
philosophy.  A  teacher  who  achieves  success  by 
virtue  of  the  intensity  of  his  personality,  in  spite 
of  the  faultiness  of  his  method,  might  be  still  more 
successful  by  greater  regard  to  the  means  used  in  his 
endeavors.  Elocution  is  not  oratory :  it  is  too  often 
mere  empty  sound.  Peter  the  Hermit  in  his  beggar's 
garb  moved  all  Europe  by  his  uncouth  speech  ;  and 
yet  Demosthenes  strove  with  masterly  will  to  over- 
come defects  and  achieve  a  style  and  manner  which 
should  serve  as  a  medium  for  the  conveyance  of  his 
own  great  thoughts  to  the  minds  and  hearts  of  his 
countrymen,  and  incite  them  to  deeds  of  lofty  valor. 


196  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

The  studied  arts  in  the  use  of  voice,  gesture, 
manner,  lend  a  charm  and  potency  even  to  "  words 
that  breathe  and  thoughts  that  burn."  No  teacher 
can  safely  neglect  the  added  power  imparted  by  a 
correct  method. 

Teachers  should  strive  constantly  to  attain  new 
degrees  of  excellence  in  method.  Perfection  ever 
eludes  even  the  most  ambitious.  The  greatest 
master  is  yet  a  tyro.  There  is  no  "The  Method." 
Method  is  the  outgrowth  of  philosophy,  and  must 
adjust  itself  to  the  laws  of  mind  and  to  the 
exigencies  of  science.  What  are  the  laws  of  mind  1 
What  constitutes  education  }  What  is  the  educa- 
tional value  of  each  of  the  sciences }  are  some  of 
the  questions  that  remain  to  vex  the  educator. 
Progressive  inquiry  is  possible  in  each  direction, 
and  each  successive  attainment  admits,  if  it  does 
not  demand,  a  modification  in  method.  Method 
must  likewise  recognize  the  individuality  of  the  pupil. 
That  which  may  be  most  potent  with  one  may  prove 
utterly  impotent  with  another.  Method  easily 
degenerates  into  routine  —  dead  formalism.  Great 
reforms  are  often  nothing  more  than  desperate 
endeavors  to  break  away  from  this  lifeless  formality. 
Iconoclasm  becomes  a  virtue,  and  empiricism  meri- 
torious. Erasmus  and  Ulrich  von  Hutten  were  the 
forerunners  of  those  who  reconstructed  the  world's 
religious  teaching.  Every  teacher  should  himself 
be  a  perpetual  reformer. 

The  man  and  his  method  exert  a  reciprocal 
influence  upon   each   other.      A  growing  manhood, 


THE  MAN  AND  HIS  METHOD.  I  97 

characterized  by  loftier  aims,  wider  research,  greater 
attainments,  deepened  experience,  manifests  itself  in 
improved  methods  of  work.  On  the  other  hand  the 
increased  skill  secures  better  results,  leads  to  larger 
endeavors  and  broader  opportunities,  kindles  new 
enthusiasm,  and  begets  enlargement  of  soul. 


XV. 
METHOD   IN   QUESTIONINa 


The  art  of  asking  questions  is  not  a  simple  art. 

E.  E.  White. 


Socrates  spent  his  life  in  teaching,  and  in  teaching  in  an  original 
method,  which  has  preserved  his  name.  He  had  the  genius  of  interro- 
gation. To  question  all  whom  he  met,  either  at  the  gymnasium  or  in 
the  streets;  to  question  the  sophists  in  order  to  convince  them  of  their 
errors  and  to  confound  their  arrogance,  and  presumptious  young  men 
in  order  to  teach  them  the  truth  of  which  they  were  ignorant;  to 
question  great  and  small,  statesmen  and  masons,  now  Pericles  and  now 
a  shopkeeper;  to  question  always  and  everywhere,  in  order  to  compel 
every  one  to  form  clear  ideas;   such  was  the  constant  occupation  and 

passion  of  his  life. 

Gabriel  Compayre. 


XV. 
METHOD    IN    QUESTIONING. 

One  of   the  most  important  means  of  stimulating  thought  is  ques- 
tioning.—  F.  B.  Palmer. 

In  all  the  earlier  stages  of  education  the  chief 
business  of  the  teacher  is  to  arouse  and  direct  the 
activity  of  the  pupil.  All  mental  development  and 
growth  in  knowledge  is  conditioned  upon  this 
activity.  The  pupil  must  desire  to  know,  he  must 
observe  and  think  for  himself.  No  receptivity,  how- 
ever great,  suffices.  Indeed,  receptivity  is  active. 
The  mind  must  be  on  the  alert,  eager  for  truth, 
rejoicing  in  action.  Even  when  the  teacher  instructs, 
pours  into  the  mind  facts  and  truths,  it  is  only  as  the 
pupil  lays  hold  upon  these  facts  and  assimilates 
them  by  thought  that  they  are  really  communicated. 

Most  children  are  endowed  with  a  fair  degree  of 
native  energy  that  manifests  itself,  among  other 
ways,  in  a  curiosity  that  leads  them  to  investigate 
nature  and  to  seek  information  from  their  compan- 
ions. When  properly  nourished,  this  curiosity  is 
sufficient  to  insure  to  them  a  full  development  of 
their  powers  and  a  large  acquisition  of   knowledge. 

Too    often,    however,    by    neglect     or     by    false 

methods,    this    divine    gift    of    curiosity    is    stifled. 

A    recent   writer,    alluding    to   his  seventeen    years' 

201 


202  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

experience  as  a  professor  in  one  of  our  oldest  col- 
leges, says :  "  I  am  more  and  more  impressed,  and 
often  sadly  impressed,  with  the  failure  on  the  part  of 
college  students  to  manifest  that  intellectual  curi- 
osity, and  to  put  themselves  in  that  mental  attitude, 
that  shall  make  their  studies  truly  educating  to 
them." 

Any  system  of  education  which  consists  wholly 
or  chiefly,  or  largely  even,  in  simply  requiring  stu- 
dents to  commit  to  memory  certain  lessons,  whether 
truths  of  history,  rules  of  grammar,  or  facts  of 
science,  tends  to  stupefy  the  mind  and  to  crush 
out  that  curiosity  without  which  no  satisfactory 
progress  is  possible.  Any  plan  of  classical  study 
that  wholly  or  chiefly  confines  the  student's  mind 
to  the  words  of  the  text,  their  literal  meaning  and 
grammatical  structure,  is  essentially  vicious.  The 
text  of  the  classical  author  should  be  made  the 
occasion  of  a  wide  range  of  thinking  on  the  part 
of  the  student.  There  should  be  questions  from 
the  teacher  as  to  geography,  history,  philosophy, 
religion,  etc.,  suggested  by  the  text ;  questions  call- 
ing for  an  expression  of  opinion  as  to  the  sentiments 
advanced,  judgment  as  to  the  wisdom  of  things 
done,  comparison  of  men,  cities,  events,  etc.  ;  in 
short,  questions  that  serve  to  put  the  mind  of  the 
American  student  of  a  classical  author  in  the  same 
state,  as  far  as  possible,  as  that  of  a  student  contem- 
porary with  the  author  himself. 

Questions  are  often  framed  simply  with  a  view 
to  test  the  memory.     The  examiner  is  satisfied  when 


METHOD  IN  QUESTIONING.  2O3 

the  student  by  his  answers  shows  that  he  has  stored 
away,  subject  to  call,  the  various  fragments  of  knowl- 
edge set  him  for  lessons.  It  is  important,  of  course, 
that  the  memory  shall  do  its  work.  It  is  an  invaluable 
power.  Like  the  ammunition  train  in  an  army,  it 
needs  to  be  well  supplied  and  always  at  hand.  The 
bravest  soldiers  and  most  skilful  gunners  are  largely 
dependent  upon  its  proximity  and  fulness  for  effec- 
tive service.  But  after  all  it  is  merely  a  supply 
train.  Ammunition  is  only  a  dead  weight  and  an 
encumbrance  unless  there  is  courage,  wisdom,  skill, 
and  efficiency  in  its  use.  Memoriter  recitation  is 
hurtful,  rather  than  helpful,  just  in  proportion  as 
it  is  accepted  as  a  substitute  for  earnest  intellectual 
effort,  involving  the  putting  forth  of  all  our  powers. 
One  hour  of  qriginal  thinking  is  worth  a  week  of 
memoriter  recitation. 

The  mind  is  stimulated  to  action  by  the  presence 
of  real  things  in  nature  and  art.  The  natural  phe- 
nomena appeal  strongly  to  the  child's  curiosity  ;  but 
the  mystery  of  nature  is  too  profound,  the  difficulty 
of  understanding  its  laws  is  too  great,  for  the 
unaided  student.  The  child  of  nature  is  always  a 
child.  No  man  or  generation  of  men  left  to  them- 
selves would  or  could  make  much  progress  in  the 
conquest  of  the  secrets  of  the  universe.  It  is  the 
accumulated  knowledge  and  wisdom  of  the  ages, 
increased  little  by  little  and  taught  by  one  generation 
to  another,  that  is  man's  heritage.  The  teacher 
initiates  the  student  into  these  mysteries,  gives  him 
the  key  to  this  great  treasure-house,  enthrones   him 


204  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

as  ruler  over  nature's  great  forces,  and  teaches  him 
how  to  subject  them  to  his  own  uses. 

To  leave  him  to  his  unaided  efforts  is  to  doom  him 
to  failure  and  to  consign  him  to  despair.  To  attempt 
to  lay  upon  him,  ready  made,  the  accumulations  of 
science  and  the  formulas  of  philosophy  is  to  crush 
him  with  riches.  The  teacher  is  to  put  him  into 
right  relations  with  the  world  about  him  and  that 
greater  world  within  him,  and  by  hint,  suggestion, 
and  question  lead  him  to  put  forth  all  his  powers  of 
observation,  introspection,  and  thought,  until  he 
comes  to  self-conscious  freedom  and  to  the  mastery 
of  his  surroundings. 

The  chief  agent  in  the  hands  of  the  teacher  for 
this  great  work  is  the  question.  Not  the  lifeless 
interrogatory  printed  at  the  bottom  of  the  page,  a 
sort  of  birdtrack  on  the  rock  to  show  where  a  living 
creature  had  once  stood  in  some  former  age ;  not  a 
mere  formal  quest  after  the  contents  of  the  memory, 
like  a  pail  dipped  into  a  cistern  ;  but  a  living  ques- 
tion designed  to  stimulate  inquiry,  provoke  thought, 
arouse  the  imagination,  and  to  lead  the  mind  to 
exert  its  best  energies  in  the  endeavor  to  solve  for 
itself  life's  riddles.  Thus  led  into  face-to-face 
contact  with  things  which  he  must  observe  for  him- 
self as  though  his  eye  had  first  looked  upon  them  ; 
into  an  investigation  of  nature's  laws  and  forces, 
which  under  helpful  guidance  he  is  to  ascertain  and 
formulate  for  himself  as  though  no  science  had  yet 
been  begun  ;  into  communion  with  himself,  observ- 
ing, analyzing,  classifying,  and  philosophizing  upon 


METHOD   IN  QUESTIONING.  205 

his  own  powers  ;  into  a  philosophic  study  of  man  in 
society  and  history,  the  student  follows  in  the  foot- 
steps of  the  race  as  an  investigator,  a  discoverer,  a 
philosopher,  with  this  difference,  that  rightly  guided 
he  alone  does  more  in  a  single  lifetime  to  compel 
from  nature  her  secrets  than  all  men  in  all  previous 
time  have  done. 

The  questions  that  can  be  asked,  and  the  answers 
to  which  constitute  the  whole  body  of  knowledge, 
whether  science  or  philosophy,  can  be  reduced  to  a 
very  few  classes.  It  is  possible  for  a  wise  teacher 
in  a  few  years  to  so  question  a  pupil  that  all  his 
powers  shall  be  aroused,  all  the  sources  of  informa- 
tion be  opened  to  him  and  at  his  command,  and  so 
that  he  shall  possess  a  method  of  inquiry  himself 
which  renders  his  progress  swift,  certain,  and  satis- 
factory. 

Ten  categories  will,  perhaps,  exhaust  the  list. 
They  are :  What  .■'  Of  what  kind  .-*  How  many  .-* 
How  much  .?  Who  t  Where  t  When  .?  How }  Why  ? 
What  then .-'  One  who  is  accustomed  to  seek  an 
answer  to  all  of  these  inquiries,  to  follow  "  the  con- 
nection and  dependence  of  ideas  till  the  mind  is 
brought  to  the  source  on  which  it  bottoms,"  is 
already,  in  a  very  large  sense,  an  educated  person. 
He  alone  is  a  good  teacher  who  is,  not  like  Peter 
Lombard,  a  "master  of  sentences,"  but,  like  Socra- 
tes, a  master  of  questions. 

Let  us  look,  simply  by  way  of  illustration,  at  the 
significance  and  compass  of  these  questions,  i. 
What .''     One  of  the  primary  and  fundamental  acts 


206  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

in  the  process  of  thinking  is  that  of  dis^icaination, 
the  separation  of  the  object  of  thought  from  all 
else  ;  for  as  soon  as  the  mind  gives  attention  to  a 
sensation,  it  must  localize  it  as  a  sensation  of  sight, 
of  hearing,  etc.,  and  then  must  refer  it  to  some 
definite  object  as  its  source  or  occasion.  Every 
act  of  perception  is  an  act  of  discrimination,  of  men- 
tal concentration.  Every  object  of  thought  has  its 
own  characteristics,  its  individuality,  and  can  be 
known  to  the  observer  only  by  an  effort.  Suppose 
a  child  is  learning  to  read,  and  that  there  is  placed 
before  it  the  word  "cat."  The  teacher  may  pro- 
nounce the  word  and  the  child  echo  it.  This  process, 
repeated  often  enough,  will  serv^e  to  fix  the  word 
in  a  sort  of  mechanical  way  in  his  mind,  and  to 
form  a  loose  association  between  its  written  form, 
spoken  sound,  and  its  meaning ;  but  it  is  only  when 
the  child  has  really  directed  its  mental  energies  upon 
the  word,  observed  its  form  and  sound,  discriminated 
it  from  other  words,  noted  its  peculiarities,  that  he 
actually  learns  it.  The  mere  name  is  the  least  part ; 
the  particular  word,  as  unlike  all  other  words  and 
with  a  character  all  its  own,  is  another  matter.  So 
too  in  learning  about  a  veritable  cat  the  child  needs 
to  see  and  handle,  to  distinguish,  observe,  and  com- 
pare, until  it  has  a  definite,  clear,  familiar  acquaint- 
ance with  it,  so  that  when  he  thinks  "  cat  "  the  idea 
has  distinct  contents.  The  same  process  of  mind 
which  the  child  uses  in  making  his  first  acquaintance 
with  the  elements  of  learning  must  be  used  by  the 
trained  scientist  or  philosopher  in  pushing  his 
researches  into  the  farthest    boundaries  of   inquiry. 


METHOD  IN  QUESTIONING.  207 

The  question  What  ?  calls  not  only  for  observation, 
discrimination,  analysis,  comparison,  but  for  naming, 
defining,__and  classifying.  The  misapplication  of 
names  is  a  glaring  fault  with  most  people,  quite 
as  characteristic  of  many  so-called  educated  people 
as  of  the  illiterate,  and  results  largely  from  the  habit 
of  telling  to  children  the  names  of  objects,  without 
requiring  from  them  any  exercise  of  thought  in 
carefully  discriminating  the  precise  thing  named 
from  all  other  things  and  the  associating  with  it  the 
exact  name  appropriate  to  it. 

To  require  of  students  careful  definitions  of  all 
new  terms  used  is  a  valuable  aid  in  giving  definite- 
ness  to  their  ideas.  The  definitions  learned  from 
books  may  or  may  not  be  helpful ;  but  the  definitions 
made  by  the  pupil,  the  boundary  which  he  himself 
draws  around  the  idea  represented  by  the  word  he 
uses,  necessitates  thought  and  gives  definiteness  of 
apprehension. 

Defining  leads  to  classifying.  The  classification 
which  the  student  is  led  to  make  for  himself  in 
answer  to  the  teacher's  What  is  it  .''  provokes  a 
higher  order  of  thinking  than  is  involved  in  observ- 
ing or  naming.  At  first  he  will  hesitate  and  blunder, 
and  will  need  help  —  help,  however,  which  is  usually 
best  given,  not  by  direct  information,  but  by  other 
questions. 

2.  Closely  akin  to  the  question  What .-'  is  the 
question  Of  what  kind  }  This  calls  for  a  description 
of  the  object  :  whether  material  or  spiritual ;  animal, 
vegetable,  or   mineral;   homogeneous    or   organized. 


208  STUDIES  /N  PEDAGOGY. 

It  calls  for  parts,  qualities,  and  properties.  The 
teacher,  by  proper  questions,  may  lead  the  student 
to  put  himself  into  all  possible  relations  with  an 
object,  that  he  may  describe  it  as  it  appears  —  if  a 
material  thing  —  to  eye,  ear,  touch,  etc.  Every 
object  of  thought  can  be  viewed  with  reference  to 
certain  characteristic  phases.  A  mineral  has  form, 
lustre,  hardness,  specific  gravity,  etc.;  a  bird  has 
size,  parts,  plumage,  habits,  etc.;  a  man  has  age, 
size,  features,  complexion,  carriage,  etc.  Country 
has  latitude,  longitude,  altitude,  boundary,  surface, 
slope,  soil,  climate,  products,  etc. 

Observation,  which  lies  at  the  basis  of  all  knowl- 
edge getting  and  conditions  all  intellectual  growth, 
must  be  the  pupil's  own  act.  It  is  best  called  into 
exercise  not  by  telling  him  what  some  one  else  has 
seen,  nor  what  to  see,  but  by  repeated  inquiries  as  to 
what  he  himself  sees,  has  seen,  or  may  see.  Thus 
directed,  he  will  form  a  habit  of  careful,  accurate, 
exhaustive,  and  comprehensive  observation,  and  of 
clear,  concise,  complete  description.  At  some  stages 
of  culture,  and  in  reference  to  some  things,  the 
habit  of  requiring  the  pupil  to  represent  the  object 
of  his  thought  by  a  drawing  on  paper,  slate,  or 
blackboard  is  an  invaluable  aid  in  securing  definite- 
ness  of  conception.  That  which  can  be  pictured 
must  first  exist  clearly  in  the  mind. 

It  is  obvious  that  the  questions  What .''  and  Of 
what  kind  .-*  call  for  statements  of  tht  nature  not 
only  of  those  objects  of  thought  which  are  material 
and  appeal  to  the  senses,  but  also  of  those  objects 


METHOD  IN  QUESTIONING.  2O9 

which  are  immaterial ;  such  as  the  mind  and  its 
states  and  activities  as  revealed  by  consciousness, 
as  well  as  those  subtler  conceptions  of  time,  space, 
number,  personal  identity,  etc.,  that  spring  up  in 
the  mind,  not  out  of  observation  nor  yet  out  of 
consciousness,  but  intuitively. 

That  is  a  very  shallow  view  of  knowledge  and  of 
education  which  asserts  that  all  our  knowledge 
comes  through  the  senses,  and  that  the  mind  can 
only  be  trained  through  the  activity  of  the  percep- 
tive faculties.  The  pupil  is  to  be  led  by  questions 
to  seek  to  give  a  rational  account  of  the  contents 
of  his  mind  that  have  not  had  a  sense  origin  and 
have  no  sense  relations.  "Our  age  inclines  at  pres- 
ent to  the  superstition  that  man  is  able,  by  means 
of  simple  sense  perception,  to  attain  to  a  knowledge 
of  the  essence  of  things  and  thereby  dispense  with 
the  trouble  of  thinking."  ^ 

3.  How  many .''  The  moment  a  child  distinguishes 
one  thing  from  another  of  the  same  kind,  there  arises 
in  his  mind  the  idea  of  number,  and,  when  once 
awakened,  this  idea  is  never  lost.  It  becomes  one 
of  the  essential  forms  of  the  mind's  activity  accord- 
ing to  which  it  contemplates  the  world. 

The  whole  philosophy  of  numbers,  their  properties, 
combinations,  and  relations,  should  be  taught  by 
questions  rather  than  by  instruction.  The  names  — 
which  are  arbitrary  —  must  be  given,  the  processes 
may  be  exhibited,  but  the  rationale  of  the  process 
must    be  seen  and    not    told.     Nothing,  perhaps,  is 

^  Rosenkranz. 


2  I O  S  TUDIES  IN  FED  A  GOGY. 

more  characteristic  of  what  may  be  termed  the 
"new  education"  than  the  improved  way  of  teach- 
ing mathematics.  When  the  child  knows  one  book, 
one  apple,  etc.,  he  is  shown  two  books  and  asked. 
How  many.''  One  is  removed.  Now  how  many? 
Nothing  is  told  him  unless  in  answer  to  his  own 
questions,  but  by  incessant  questioning  he  is  led  to 
separate  and  combine  and  describe  the  act  and 
result,  and  thus  think  his  way  through  the  science. 
Arithmetic  thus  developed  is  a  valuable  mental 
gymnastic;  taught  as  it  often  is,  it  dwarfs  and 
cripples  the  mind. 

4.  The  question  How  much }  suggests  standards 
of  measurement — foot,  yard,  pound,  gallon,  etc. 
The  ordinary  method  of  teaching  weights  and  meas- 
ures is  to  require  pupils  to  commit  the  tables  to 
memory,  often  without  their  ever  having  seen  a 
standard  of  either  weight  or  measure.  Such  knowl- 
edge is  of  little  or  no  practical  worth,  and  of  the 
least  possible  value  as  a  means  of  mental  discipline. 
But  when  a  quantity  of  matter  —  beans,  water — is 
given  to  the  pupil,  and  he  is  required  to  determine 
its  quantity  by  actual  measurement  in  answer  to 
the  demand  How  much  .?  he  acquires  definite,  valu- 
able knowledge  and  is  constrained  to  mental  activity 
of  high  disciplinary  value.  When  he  is  required  to 
estimate  the  same  quantity  of  matter  in  terms  of 
different  standards  of  measure,  —  so  many  pints, 
quarts,  pecks,  litres  ;  so  many  metres,  yards,  paces, 
etc., — the  entire  subject  of  reduction,  so  obscure  to 
many  students,  may  be  developed,  and  thus  a  habit 


METHOD  IN   QUESTIONING.  211 

of  mind  established  which  in  after-Hfe  is  of  the 
utmost  value  in  enabling  him  to  view  the  same 
persons,  events,  or  systems  of  government,  philos- 
ophy, etc.,  from  different  points  of  view. 

5.  Who }  In  the  whole  range  of  human  study  no 
subject  has  deeper  interest  than  human  beings.  We 
sustain  intimate  relations  to  those  about  us,  and 
individual  biography  has  for  us  a  perennial  interest. 
The  question  Who }  directs  the  thought  of  the 
student  to  the  following  points  in  the  biography : 
(i)  Name.  (2)  Ancestry.  (3)  Birth  :  time,  place. 
(4)  Education.  (5)  Career.  (6)  Death  :  time,  place, 
circumstances.  (7)  Estimate  of  character.  A  mere 
memorizing  of  the  facts  of  biography  is  of  little 
avail  in  the  work  of  education  ;  but  when  the  pupil, 
under  direction  of  the  teacher  and  in  answer  to  his 
searching  questions,  is  led  to  think  his  way  to  a 
clear  understanding  of  the  facts  ;  to  a  lively  interest 
in  the  personality  of  the  individual,  an  independent 
judgment  of  his  character  and  actions,  and  to  make 
a  practical  application  of  the  lessons  learned  to  life's 
problems,  biography  is  at  once  entertaining,  instruc- 
tive, and  quickening.  It  is  invaluable  as  a  training 
for  the  judgment.  Passing  over  the  question  (6) 
Where .''  with  its  suggestions  of  direction,  distance, 
latitude,  longitude,  altitude,  and  the  more  difificult 
inquiries  into  space ;  and  (7)  the  question  When } 
that  brings  up  so  many  thoughts  of  time  and  its 
measurement,  I  pass  to  (8)  the  question  How? 
This  provokes  thought  as  to  the  manner,  means, 
or    instruments    with    which    any    event    has    been 


212  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOG V. 

brought  about.  Everywhere  about  us  is  a  vast 
organism,  a  most  complex  scheme  of  means  and  ends. 
What  are  the  adjustments  used  in  that  exquisite 
bit  of  machinery,  the  human  body  ?  What  are  the 
processes  in  human  thought  ?  How  do  the  great 
forces  of  light,  heat,  electricity,  generate .'' 

In  all  stages  of  education  there  is  imperative  need, 
if  any  high  results  are  to  be  reached,  that  the  pupil 
should  be  led  to  independent  inquiry ;  be  required 
to  answer  questions  not  in  the  textbook ;  to  solve 
problems  for  whose  solution  the  book  gives  at  most 
only  a  hint.  To  stimulate  the  mind  to  invention, 
whether  in  designing,  in  mechanical  construction, 
in  arrangement  of  arguments,  or  in  the  elaboration 
of  a  scheme  of  philosophy,  is  a  part  of  that  higher 
culture  so  much  needed  and  so  little  realized. 

9  and  lo.  The  questions  Why  .-*  and  What  then.'' 
seek  for  reasons,  purpose,  causes,  and  effects.  The 
senses  give  us  facts,  the  reason  seeks  for  philosophy. 
At  a  very  early  stage  of  the  student's  education 
should  begin  the  habit  of  thinking  with  a  view  of 
discovering  those  deep  thoughts  of  God  which  are 
everywhere  embodied  in  the  universe.  Man  is  a 
rational  being,  and  the  goal  of  culture  is  rationality. 
It  is  a  serious  defect  in  mental  habit  when  the  mind 
rests  satisfied  with  a  comprehension  of  mere  facts 
without  a  comprehension  of  their  relations.  Facts, 
like  food,  are  useful  only  as  they  have  been  assimi- 
lated. The  possession  of  facts  does  not  constitute 
culture.  Facts  are  only  the  starting-point  and  not 
the  goal.     They  are  the    means  of   culture.     Their 


METHOD  IN  QUESTIONIMG.  213 

chief  value  is  that  of  suggesting  thought.  "The 
observing  man  collects  facts,  and  the  reflecting  man 
explains  facts."  They  are  indispensable  in  any 
scheme  of  thought,  just  as  stone,  wood,  and  other 
material  things  are  needed  for  the  embodiment  of 
the  architect's  ideal  of  a  cathedral ;  but  the  thought 
that  plans,  uses,  and  everywhere  subordinates  the 
material  to  its  own  purposes  is  greater  than  the 
material. 

A  mind  trained  to  think  under  the  spur  of  ques- 
tions finds  for  every  effect  a  cause ;  underneath 
phenomena  he  sees  laws.  Facts  have  their  philos- 
ophy. The  universe  is  a  cosmos.  We  live  under 
the  reign  of  law;  order  takes  the  place  of  confusion. 
There  is  a  philosophy  of  history  and  a  science  of 
life.  The  goal  of  study  is  the  ability  to  philoso- 
phize. Philosophy  cannot  be  taught  :  it  must  be 
created.  Nothing  is  true  for  the  mind  which  it 
has  not  thought  out.  The  mind  is  self-active,  must 
make  its  own  creed,  evolve  its  own  philosophy. 
The  universe  is  to  each  that  which  each  thinks  it 
to  be.  Other  men's  thoughts  may  help  us  by  way 
of  suggestion  or  test,  or  even  by  provoking  a  reac- 
tion against  what  we  deem  error,  which  enables  us 
to  reach  conclusions  that  are  more  nearly  in  accord- 
ance with  the  reality  of  things  as  we  see  them. 

That  teacher  does  the  most  for  his  pupil  who  by 
wise  questioning  stimulates  his  powers,  leads  to  an 
inquiry  into  the  facts  about  him  and  within  him, 
their  nature  and  relations,  draws  from  him  such  an 
exercise  of  his  powers  of   observation,  imagination, 


214  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

and  thinking  that  he  forms  an  original,  independent 
judgment  of  things  presented  to  his  mind,  and  elab- 
orates for  himself  a  philosophy. 

The  philosophy  of  questioning,  then,  is  this : 
Questioning  is  to  be  used  chiefly  as  a  means  of 
awakening  interest,  directing  the  attention,  arous- 
ing curiosity,  stimulating  thought,  suggesting  lines 
of  inquiry  and  sources  of  information.  It  is  not  so 
much  a  test  of  attainment  as  a  stimulant  to  action. 
The  grade  or  difficulty  of  the  question  must  be 
adapted  to  the  strength  of  the  student,  and  its 
character  to  the  peculiarity  of  his  mind.  The  order 
of  succession  of  questions  will  necessarily  be  sug- 
gested partly  by  the  nature  of  the  subject  (logical 
order)  and  partly  by  the  special  power  or  effort  to 
be  evoked  (pedagogical  order).  The  real  pedagogue 
—  child  leader  —  is  the  child  questioner.  To  ques- 
tion well  is  to  teach  well. 


XVI. 
METHOD    OF  TEACHING  ARITHMETIC 


Arithmetical  language  is  the  expression  of  arithmetical  ideas. 

Edward  Brooks. 


We  cannot   too  strongly  impress  upon  the    teacher's    mind   that 

each  lesson    in    arithmetic    must    be    at    the    same    time    a    lesson    in 

language. 

E.  V.  DeGraff. 


A  child's  seeming  stupidity  in  learning  arithmetic  may,  perhaps, 

be  a  proof  of  intelligence  and  good  sense. 

Marla  Edgeworth. 


The  method  of  introducing  each  subject  is  such  that  the  student 
is  led  to  truth  in  the  path  of  the  original  investigator  —  certainly  the 
vnost  natural  and  delightful  road  to  the  acquisition  of  knowledge. 

W.  J.  Milne. 


XVI. 
METHOD    OF    TEACHING    ARITHMETIC. 

The  knowledge  of  number  relations  adds  very  much  to  the  child's 
life.  —  Friedrich  Froebel. 

Arithmetic  should  be  so  taught  as  to  secure  a 
high  degree  of  intellectual  discipline,  awakening  the 
observing  powers,  stimulating  analysis,  comparison, 
judgment,  abstraction,  generalization,  and  so  as  to 
give  to  the  student  practical  skill  in  business  compu- 
tations. It  is  preeminently  a  thought  study,  and  only 
incidentally  a  memory  study.  The  two  chief  things 
to  be  striven  for  are  accuracy  and  facility. 

The  design  of  this  paper  is  to  set  forth  in  brief 
some  of  the  more  salient  features  of  what  is  believed 
to  be  a  philosophical  method  of  procedure. 

A  conception  of  number — one  and  other — may 
be  awakened  in  the  mind  of  a  child  at  a  very  early 
age.  As  soon  as  he  can  comprehend  such  simple 
questions  as,  where  is  your  hand .-'  where  is  your 
other  hand  ?  he  is  prepared  for  the  request,  show  me 
one  hand  ;  show  me  two  hands. 

Ideas  of  consecutive  numbers  should  be  awakened 
by  the  contemplation  of  groups  of  objects,  such  as  I, 
II,  III,  1 1 II,  mil,  o,  oo,  ooo,  oooo,  ooooo.  Sticks, 
blocks,  rings,  beads,  and  other  familiar  objects  grouped 
in  ones,  twos,  threes,  etc.,  will  soon  av/aken  definite 
conceptions  of  these  simple  numbers. 

2)J 


2  1 8  ST  UDIES  IN  FED  A  GOGY. 

As  soon  as  the  idea  two,  three,  etc.,  is  clearly 
awakened  the  term  should  be  given  to  designate  the 
number.  The  child  should  be  taught  to  count  not 
by  rote  one,  two,  three,  etc.,  but  by  grouping  objects, 
and  applying  to  each  group  its  proper  number  name. 
Counting  is  primarily  grouping.  The  order  of  count- 
ing should  be  learned  by  comparison  of  one  object 
with  two  objects,  I,  II,  of  two  with  three,  II,  III, 
until  he  becomes  familiar  with  the  idea  of  regular 
increase  by  one — I,  II,  III,  IIII,  one  and  one,  two 
and  one,  three  and  one,  etc. 

When  sufficient  familiarity  has  been  acquired  with 
the  simple  ideas  one,  two,  three,  as  applied  to  objects, 
he  may  be  led  to  perform  fundamental  operations  of 
combining  and  separating,  adding,  multiplying,  sub- 
tracting, and  dividing. 

The  child  should  be  led  to  recognize  that  multi- 
plying is  but  a  short  way  of  adding  the  same  num- 
bers ;  that  division  and  subtraction  are  kindred  opera- 
tions, while  subtraction  is  the  reverse  of  addition, 
and  division  of  multiplication.  The  "  Grube  "  method 
of  teaching  the  four  fundamental  rules  simultaneously 
is  philosophical. 

The  first  year  in  school — from  five  to  six  —  may 
be  profitably  limited  in  number  work  to  acquainting 
the  little  ones  with  numbers  from  one  to  ten. 

During  this  early  stage  a  good  deal  of  collateral 
knowledge  of  form,  color,  size,  direction,  etc.,  may 
be  acquired  ;  and  besides,  some  skill  in  the  use  of 
language  of  numbers. 

When  the  child  enters  upon  a  higher  stage  of  a 


METHOD    OF   TEACHING   ARITHMETIC.       2I9 

more  extended  study  of  addition,  subtraction,  multi- 
plication, and  division,  he  should  be  led  to  construct 
his  own  tables.  These  tables  should  then  be  thor- 
oughly memorized  and  rendered  familiar  by  extended 
drill. 

The  successive  steps  are,  observation,  thought, 
expression,  memory,  use,  involving  imagination  and 
reason.  Original  problems  should  be  required  at 
every  stage. 

A  knowledge  of  fractions  should  be  based  upon 
division.  To  separate  an  apple  into  two  equal  parts 
is  to  divide  by  two  into  halves.  To  divide  by  three 
is  to  create  thirds,  etc. 

The  child  should  be  led  to  think  of  an  apple,  for 
example,  as  one  whole,  two  halves,  three  thirds,  four 
fourths,  etc.  ;  to  think  of  one  half  as  two  fourths. 
Addition  of  fractions  should  be  taught  by  first  adding 
halves  to  halves,  then  thirds  to  thirds,  then  by  adding 
halves  and  fourths,  thirds  and  sixths,  etc. 

A  cardinal  rule  to  be  observed  at  every  step  is  to 
illustrate  principles  by  the  smallest,  simplest  exam- 
ples. When  thoroughly  understood,  the  principle 
may  be  illustrated  by  more  difficult  examples.  "  From 
simple  to  complex."  The  principle  should  be  illus- 
trated not  by  one  example  only,  but  by  numerous 
and  varied  ones,  until  it  can  be  recognized  in  exam- 
ples widely  different. 

Decimals  should  be  taught  by  reference,  not  to 
common  fractions,  but  to  whole  numbers.  Whole 
numbers  are  written  on  the  decimal  scale.  Reckon- 
ing from  units  we  count  to  the  left  in  whole  numbers, 


2  2 O  Sr UDIES  IN  PEDA  GOG  Y. 

tens,  hundreds,  thousands  ;  and  in  decimal  fractions 
we  count  to  the  right,  tenths,  hundredths,  thousandths ; 
for  example,  222.222.  Familiarity  with  the  funda- 
mental rules  in  reckoning  with  whole  numbers  will 
render  decimals  very  simple  if  taught  as  fractional 
parts  of  whole  numbers  written  in  the  same  scale, 
and  not  as  a  strange  way  of  writing  common  frac- 
tions. 

Compound  numbers  should  be  taught  by  the  use 
of  weights  and  measures.  The  child  with  a  pint 
cup  in  hand  should  find  by  experiment  that  two 
pints  make  a  quart,  and  four  quarts  a  gallon.  He 
should  be  accustomed  to  think  of  a  quantity  of 
liquid  as  so  many  gallons,  quarts,  or  pints,  according 
to  his  pleasure. 

In  like  manner  a  given  distance  should  be  thought 
of  as  so  many  inches,  so  many  feet,  so  many  rods, 
according  to  extent.  A  yard  should  always  suggest 
not  only  an  absolute  length,  but  its  equivalent,  three 
feet,  thirty-six  inches. 

The  cardinal  principle  here  to  be  heeded  is  that 
the  various  modes  of  representing  quantity  are  only 
matters  of  convenience.  The  same  idea  of  quantity 
should  be  expressed  in  as  many  ways  as  the  child  is 
capable  of  using. 

A  study  of  the  history  of  weights  and  measures, 
together  with  comparison  of  them,  is  full  of  interest 
to  the  student  capable  of  reflecting  upon  them. 

Processes  should  be  taught  before  principles,  and 
pupils  should  be  led  to  deduce  the  principles  for 
themselves  and  to  formulate  their  own  rules.    Nothing 


METHOD    OF   TEACHING  ARITHMETIC.        22  1 

in  arithmetic  should  ever  be  taught  as  a  matter  of 
memory  which  can  readily  be  learned  as  a  matter 
of  thinking. 

When  students  have  advanced  in  the  study  of 
arithmetic  to  the  limit  of  their  powers  of  under- 
standing, they  sliould  either  have  more  extended  and 
difificult  drill  in  the  application  of  principles  already 
understood,  or  they  should  drop  the  subject  until 
they  are  mature  enough  to  fully  understand  the  new 
difficulties. 

TEACHING    THE    METRIC    SYSTEM. 

There  are  certainly  three  reasons  for  teaching  the 
metric  system  in  our  public  schools.  The  terms  used 
in  it  are  so  frequently  met  with  in  current  literature 
and  in  conversation  that  ignorance  of  their  meaning 
is  very  embarrassing.  The  practical  use  of  the  sys- 
tem in  business  life  is  sufficient  to  warrant  every  pro- 
spective business  man,  and  especially  every  possible 
traveler,  in  acquiring  a  working  knowledge  of  it.  But 
the  weightiest  consideration  of  all  lies  in  the  system 
itself.  It  is  so  simple  and  complete  that  its  study 
gives  pleasure  as  well  as  valuable  mental  training  to 
the  student. 

The  one  indispensable  condition  for  successfully 
teaching  the  system  is  a  complete  set  of  the  usual 
weights  and  measures  required  in  using  the  system 
—  the  meter,  liter,  and  gram,  their  subdivisions  and 
multiples.  The  pupil  from  the  first  should  become 
familiar  with  these  units  by  seeing,  handling,  and 
using  them.  He  is  not  to  learn  about  them,  but 
to  become  familiar  with  them. 


22  2  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

1.  Exhibit  to  the  class  a  meter,  and  let  them  see 
it,  handle  it,  and  measure  with  it.  When  by  actual 
use  the  necessity  arises  for  using  fractions  of  the 
meter,  their  attention  may  be  called  to  the  fact  that 
the  meter  is  divided  into  tenths,  or  dccivc\QX.Q.x  ;  hun- 
dredths, or  rr//^/meters  ;  and  thousandths,  or  niilli- 
meters.  Thus  learned,  these  subdivisions  will  appear 
natural,  simple,  and  be  easily  remembered.  The 
multiples  of  the  meter,  c/rrrtmeter,  //<;r/^meter,  kilo- 
meter,  and  inyriaw\Q.\.&x  may  then  be  taught.  Copious 
exercises  in  reduction,  ascending  and  descending, 
should  be  used  until  the  pupils  have  thoroughly 
mastered  all  these  terms,  and  grown  familiar  with 
the  ideas  of  length  represented  by  them. 

The  meter  should  be  taught  independently,  without 
any  reference  to  the  yard,  foot,  or  inch.  The  pupil 
should  be  accustomed  to  think  of  extension  in  terms 
of  the  meter  directly,  and  not  indirectly,  by  the  aid 
of  the  yard. 

2.  Teach  the  meter  in  relation  to  the  surface,  and 
then  to  solids. 

3.  The  transition  from  measures  of  solids  to  meas- 
ures of  capacity  is  very  simple  by  showing  the  pupil 
that  the  cubic  centimeter  is  a  milliliter.  He  should 
actually  see  this  by  measuring  the  dimensions  of  the 
milliliters  and  observing  that  each  is  a  centimeter, 
and  then  observing  that  it  requires  one  thousand  of 
these  to  make  a  cubic  liter.  The  terms  milliliter, 
centiliter,  deciliter,  should  be  illustrated,  committed, 
and  then  rendered  familiar  by  use. 

4.  To  teach  the  measures  of  weight  it  should  be 


METHOD    OF   TEACHING   ARITHMETIC. 


223 


shown  that  the  weight  of  a  miUiliter  of  water  is  a 
gram,  and  that  the  multiples  and  subdivisions  of  the 
gram  are  designated  in  the  same  way  as  those  of  the 
meter.  Students  should  have  practice  in  weighing 
articles,  and  designating  their  weight  in  terms  of  the 
gram. 

5.  I  do  not  think  it  well  to  introduce  the  idea  of 
comparison  with  English  weights  and  measures  until 
after  the  entire  metric  system  has  been  presented. 
The  object  should  be  to  lead  pupils  to  think  in  the 
metric  system,  and  thus  to  acquire  the  same  kind  of 
knowledge  of  it  that  is  acquired  by  a  French  boy  or 
girl  who  knows  no  other  system  of  weights  and  meas- 
ures. Thus  when  he  meets  the  terms  meter,  kilo- 
gram, etc.,  he  will  at  once  recall  the  ideas  that  they 
represent  without  the  delay  and  perplexity  of  first 
recalling  the  approximate  English  equivalent  and  then 
the  idea  represented  by  that. 

6.  When  the  metric  system  as  a  whole  has  been 
presented,  and  its  parts  studied  in  their  relations  to 
each  other,  it  may  be  compared  with  the  English 
system,  the  meter  with  the  yard,  the  liter  with  the 
quart,  the  kilo  with  the  pound,  the  gram  with  the 
grain,  etc.  A  very  few  equivalents  may  be  committed 
to  memory. 

7.  By  way  of  final  review  the  pupils  may  be  led  to 
see  the  absolute  necessity  of  weights  and  measures ; 
the  need  of  a  system,  definite,  fixed,  simple ;  the 
natural  origin  of  the  English  system,  with  its  com- 
plexity and  inconsistencies  ;  the  philosophical  origin 
of  the  metric  system,  with  its  advantages  and  disad- 
vantages. 


2  24  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

TEACHING    PERCENTAGE. 

The  subject  of  percentage  and  its  application  to 
the  processes  of  business,  stocks,  bonds,  etc.,  is 
often  quite  perplexing  to  students.  Many  who 
enter  the  normal  school  are  found  to  have  very- 
vague  notions  about  it.  One  reason  for  this  is  that 
oftentimes  students  attempt  the  subject  while  too 
young  to  fully  understand  the  reasoning  involved  in 
it.  A  certain  maturity  of  mind,  that  usually  comes 
only  with  age,  is  requisite  for  the  mastery  of  the 
principles  and  processes  of  business.  Another 
reason  why  girls  especially  find  percentage  and 
business  arithmetic  difficult  is  that  they  have  very 
little  practical  knowledge  of  business.  Very  many 
of  the  terms  are  meaningless  to  them.  It  is  not 
unusual  to  find  young  ladies  who  have  never  seen  a 
check,  draft,  bill  of  exchange,  letter  of  credit,  insur- 
ance policy,  or  any  of  the  ordinary  foreign  coins. 
A  third  reason  for  the  obscurity  of  the  subject  is  the 
faulty  method  of  its  presentation.  Definitions  and 
rules  are  first  memorized,  and  the  problems,  classi- 
fied and  arranged  under  the  several  cases,  are  worked 
by  rule. 

There  is  perhaps  no  invariable  method  of  present- 
ing the  subject,  and  it  is  difficult  to  put  upon  paper 
the  various  devices  and  incidental  aids  which  are  so 
hel])ful  in  presenting  it.  Quite  as  much  depends 
upon  the  teacher's  manner  as  upon  his  method. 
The  following  outline  of  a  method  may  be  found 
suggestive,  especially  to  those  inexperienced  teachers 
who  have  no  well-defined  method  of  their  own. 


METHOD    OF   TEACHING   ARITHMETIC. 


225 


1.  A  meter  affords  a  very  simple  means  of 
introducing  the  subject.  Let  the  pupils  observe 
that  it  is  divided  into  one  hundred  equal  parts.  The 
whole  equals  |f§.  The  half  contains  -^^^  one  quar- 
ter equals  -f^,  one  tenth  equals  iVV)  t;tc.  An  ordi- 
nary foot  rule,  such  as  carpenters  carry  in  their 
pockets,  answers  an  admirable  purpose.  Numerous 
problems  can  be  presented  to  the  eye  by  aid  of  the 
rule ;  for  example.  If  from  the  whole,  \%%,  I  take 
TW  (i)'  what  remains.^  Answer,  -^i-^^  or  5-  A  line 
or  a  square  drawn  upon  the  blackboard  is  helpful. 
A  hundred  grains  of  corn  or  beans  afford  amuse- 
ment and  are  useful  in  giving  concreteness  to  a 
subject  often  taught  too  abstractly. 

2.  Numerous  simple  problems  can  be  based  on  the 
above  facts,  such  as  ■j^'V  +  tryV  =  ?  iV\  —  vh  =  ? 
^  X  2  =  ?  -^%  ~  ^=2?  These  should  at  first  be 
solved  by  observation,  not  memory.  The  pupils 
should  be  led  to  question  each  other  until  they 
become  very  expert  in  both    question    and    answer. 

3.  The  teacher  may  now  explain  that  instead  of 
saying  one  hundred  hundredths,  fifty  hundredths, 
etc.,  we  may  say  one  hundred  /)cr  cent.,  fifty  per 
cent.,  etc.  We  may  write  it  in  full  as  above,  or  in 
form  of  a  fraction  \%%,  xw  \  we  may  indicate  it 
100%,  50%.  Pupils  should  be  drilled  in  writing 
and  reading  expressions  of  percentage. 

4.  They  should  then  be  led  to  make  for  themselves 
a  table  of  equivalents  from  i  to  ^\-q 

I     =   100%.  \     =     25%. 

i     =     SO  „  rh   =        I  >, 


226  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

They  should  be  rendered  familiar  with  this  table  by 
use.  The  most  common  equivalents  should  be  com- 
mitted to  memory,  and  so  associated  in  mind  that  \ 
will  suggest  immediately  122%,  etc.,  -5  =  20%,  etc., 
and  vice  versa.  Very  great  stress  is  laid  upon  this, 
for  entire  familiarity  with  these  equivalents  and  skill 
in  their  use  will  greatly  facilitate  the  progress  of  the 
pupil.  Various  problems,  at  first  very  simple,  can 
be  given  and  required  of  the  jDupils,  such  as :  A 
farmer  put  one  half  of  his  sheep  in  one  pasture,  and 
75,  the  remainder,  in  another.  How  many  had  he  } 
If  he  put  10%  of  his  cattle  in  one  pen,  15%  in 
another,  25%  in  a  third,  and  the  remainder,  100,  in 
a  fourth,  how  many  had  he  .^  If  8%  of  his  potato 
crop  was  80  bushels,  what  was  his  crop.''  If  20%  of 
a  pole  was  below  ground,  and  sixty  feet  above,  what 
was  its  length  .''  These  problems  should  be  increas- 
ingly difficult ;  should  deal  with  concrete  rather  than 
with  abstract  numbers  ;  should  relate  to  other  things 
than  money,  to  avoid  the  misconception  so  common 
that  percentage  has  only  or  chiefly  to  do  with  inter- 
est or  other  money  transactions. 

5.  Pupils  may  now  be  led  to  the  careful  analysis, 
by  inspection,  of  a  question  such  as  :  What  is  six 
per  cent,  of  eight  hundred  .-'  One  per  cent,  of  eight 
hundred  is  8.  Six  per  cent.  =  6  X  8  =:  48.  Drill 
on  meaning  and  use  of  terms,  "base,"  "rate,"  "per- 
centage." What  per  cent,  of  800  is  48.''  If  48  is 
6%  what  is  i  %  .''  Of  what  number  is  48  six  per 
cent.  .''  etc. 

6.  Familiarity  with   this  one  example  will  reveal 


METHOD    OF   TEACHING  ARITHMETIC.        227 

the  relation  of  "base,"  "rate,"  and  "percentage." 
Pupils  can  then  be  led  to  propound  to  each  other 
numerous  problems  of  a  similar  nature.  When 
familiarity  has  been  acquired  with  the  facts,  then, 
and  not  till  then, 

7.  The  formulas  may  be  introduced.  Call  atten- 
tion to  the  meaning  of  the  word  percentage — "a 
given  number  of  hundredths  of  a  number "  or 
quantity.  Percentage  is  equal  to  the  base  multi- 
plied by  the  rate.  Abbreviated,  p  =  b  r.  Let  this 
be  explained,  illustrated,  rendered  familiar  by  refer- 
ence to  example  already  studied. 

p  (48)  =  b  {800)  X  r  (.06).  b  =  p  -4-  r.  r  =  p  -^  b. 
Pupils  are  not  to  commit  the  formulas  to  memory, 
but  to  recognize  them  as  short  ways  of  expressing 
the  facts  with  which  they  have  become  well 
acquainted.  If  they  know  the  meaning  of  the 
terms  base,  rate,  percentage,  amount,  difference, 
and  can  give  a  clear  definition  of  them,  they  can 
write  the  formulas.  A  very  little  drill  will  enable 
them  to  derive  all  other  formulas  from  the  funda- 
mental  ones, 

p=br.  A  =  b  +  p;(b-f  br),and(i-f  r)b.  D=b  — p. 
It  may  not  always  be  wise  to  introduce  the  formulas 
when  the  pupil  is  passing  through  the  subject  for  the 
first  time.  They  may  be  deferred  to  a  later  period 
when  the  subject  is  reviewed.  This  will  depend 
upon  the  maturity  of  the  class,  or  the  abilit}! 
shown. 

8.  A  large  number  of  problems  should  now  bo 
used  for  drill. 


228  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

(i)  Many  of  these  should  be  given  by  pupils 
themselves. 

(2)  When  called  upon  to  solve  a  problem  the 
student  should  (a)  read  it  ;  {b)  state  what  elements 
are  given  ;  (r)  what  is  required  ;  {d)  analyze  the 
problem ;  (r)  give  the  appropriate  formula  ;  (/) 
perform  the  work,  and  {g)  make  the  explanation, 
giving  a  reason  for  each  step. 

The  pernicious  habit  of  committing  to  memory 
definitions  and  rules,  and  "  doing  the  sums  according 
to  the  rule,"  tends  to  stupefy  the  reason,  while  the 
habit  of  analyzing  the  work  done,  giving  a  reason 
for  every  step,  arriving  at  principles  through 
processes,  framing  his  own  rules,  and  devising 
his  own  illustrative  examples  and  problems, 
awakens  the  whole  mind,  stimulates  observation, 
quickens  the  memory,  develops  the  reason,  and 
cultivates  language. 

9.  When  the  students  have  mastered  the  subject 
of  percentage  they  may  be  introduced  to  its  various 
applications,  beginning  with  profit  and  loss,  or  com- 
mission. The  all-important  point  to  be  observed  is 
the  essential  unity  of  all  the  processes  in  the  vari- 
ous topics  of  business  arithmetic.  "Stocks"  and 
"bonds"  are  only  forms  of  percentage.  If  the 
students  know  percentage,  and  are  able  to  recognize 
the  elements  base,  rate,  percentage  under  their 
various  disguises  and  new  names,  their  work  will  be 
easy  and  enjoyable.  I  have  been  told  repeatedly  by 
intelligent  students  that  it  had  never  occurred  to 
them  that    stocks    had  any  relation  to    percentage  ; 


METHOD    OF   TEACHING   ARITHMETIC. 


229 


the  subject  had  been  introduced  and  taught  as  an 
entirely  new  one.  Having  finished  percentage 
they  took  up  another  subject,  "  stocks,"  which  was 
treated  independently  as  though  it  had  no  connec- 
tion with  percentage.  Instead  of  this  it  should,  of 
course,  be  taught  as  percentage  applied  to  buying 
and  selling  stocks.  When  students  clearly  apprehend 
the  great  truth  that  the  general  principles  of  per- 
centage lie  at  the  base  of  all  the  subjects  of 
business  arithmetic,  including  bank  discount  and 
foreign  exchange,  and  that  it  is  only  necessary  to 
note  the  peculiar  features  in  the  application  of 
these  principles,  the  whole  subject  takes  on  a  new 
aspect. 

10.  It  is  very  helpful  to  students  who  are 
unacquainted  with  business  to  see  and  handle 
notes,  checks,  drafts,  letters  of  credit,  bills  of 
exchange,  and  coins  of  different  countries,  while 
they  are  studying  the  subjects  in  which  these  are 
involved. 

Ordinarily  teachers  can  by  a  little  trouble  provide 
themselves  with  these,  and  thus  greatly  abridge  their 
labor,  arouse  interest,  and  impart  definite  knowledge 
on  these  obscure  topics. 

I  may  summarize  the  general  principles  involved 
in  this  method  as  follows  :  — 

1.  Percentage  is  to  be  based  on  common  fractions. 

2.  It  is  to  be  taught  inductively  and  not 
deductively. 

3.  It  is  to  be  taught  so  far  as  possible  concretely 
and  not  abstractly.     Facts  precede  principles. 


230  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

4.  The  method  is  synthetic  rather  than  analytic. 
Reviews  should  be  analytic. 

5.  The  method  appeals  to  the  understanding 
rather  than  to  the  memory.  Memory  conserves 
what  the  understanding  grasps. 

6.  The  pupil  is  led  to  see,  to  feel,  to  invent,  to 
prove.     He  makes  his  own  rules. 

7.  Each  step  prepares  the  way  for  what  follows, 
or  is  based  on  what  precedes. 

8.  One  difficulty  is  presented  at  a  time. 

9.  The  various  topics  of  business  arithmetic  are 
taught  as  applications  of  percentage,  and  constant 
reference  is  made  to  fundamental  principles. 

10.  Each  new  subject  is  studied  by  comparison 
with  what  has  gone  before.  In  stocks  "  par  value  " 
corresponds  to  "base"  in  percentage,  to  "principal" 
in  interest,  etc. 

Taught  in  this  way  percentage  may  be  brought 
within  the  range  of  grammar  school  pupils,  be  made 
interesting  to  girls,  and  be,  in  a  high  degree,  a  gym- 
nastic for  the  mind,  and  practical  in  life. 

TEACHING    SQUARE    ROOT. 

It  is  not  unusual  for  students  in  arithmetic,  when 
they  come  to  square  root,  to  be  required  to  learn  the 
rule,  and  then  to  work  the  problems  by  that.  No 
effort  is  made  to  explain  the  process  or  to  give  any 
reasons  whatever  for  any  of  the  various  steps.  The 
minds  of  the  students  are  thus  left  not  only  in  dark- 
ness, but  in  perplexity,  and  oftentimes  in  positive 
distress.     The  subject  thus  taught  not  only  does  not 


METHOD    OF    TEACHING   ARITHMETIC.        23 1 

aid  in  training  the  mind  to  think,  but  it  even  hinders 
it  in  its  growth  and  does  it  a  positive  injury.  That 
this  evil  is  very  common  is  shown  by  the  testimony 
of  numbers  of  students  who  come  to  the  normal 
school. 

Square  root  may  be  taught  so  as  to  be  perfectly 
plain  to  pupils  of  twelve  years  of  age,  and  so  as  to 
be  helpful  to  them  in  grasping  mathematical  truth, 
besides  becoming  a  source  of  even  much  intellectual 
pleasure.  The  following  is  suggested  as  a  brief  out- 
line of  one  method  of  doing  this  :  — 

1.  The  idea  of  a  square  should  be  awakened  by 
a  figure  drawn  upon  the  board.  Pupils  should  be 
required  to  describe  the  square,  and  to  draw  squares 
of  various  sizes.  They  should  be  led  to  notice  that 
a  figure  one  inch,  one  foot,  etc.,  square  contains  one 
square  inch,  one  square  foot,  etc.  A  figure  two 
inches  square  contains  four  square  inches  ;  three 
inches  square,  nine  square  inches,  etc.  They  will 
be  interested  in  noticing  the  law  of  increase.  The 
square  of  i  is  i,  of  2  is  4,  or  three  more  than  the 
first  ;  of  3  is  9,  or  5  more  than  the  second  ;  of  4  is 
16,  or  7  more  than  the  third.  Thus  the  squares  of 
consecutive  numbers  increase  in  the  order,  3,  5,  7,  9, 
II,  13,  etc.  Each  successive  increment  is  increased 
by  2. 

2.  They  should  be  led  to  sec  that  the  surface  of 
a  rectilineal  figure,  not  a  square,  is  represented  by 
the  product  of  the  length  by  the  width.  Thus  the 
area  of  a  figure  five  inches  long  by  three  inches  wide 
is  5X3- 


232  STUDIES  IiV  PEDAGOGY. 

3.  Let  them  observe  that  if  they  wish  to  increase 
the  size  of  a  figure,  say  five  inches  square,  so  that  it 
shall  be  say  seven  inches  square,  they  must  add  a 
narrow  strip  5X2  to  one  side,  then  a  similar  strip  to 
a  second  side,  and  lastly  complete  the  figure  by  add- 
ing a  little  square  2X2.  They  will  thus  see  that  the 
larger  square  7^  is  made  up  of  three  parts  :  5^  two 
rectangles  2X5,  and  2^.  Let  them  build  up  many 
such  squares  until  this  simple  truth  becomes  familiar 
to  them. 

4.  Show  that  "  squaring  "  a  number  is  only  another 
name  for  multiplying  a  number  by  itself,  of  which 
they  have  had  numerous  examples  in  the  multiplica- 
tion table  :  2X2,3X3,  12X12,  etc.  Let  them  con- 
struct for  themselves  a  table  of  the  squares  of  num- 
bers from  I  to  100:  — 


l2=      I 

10^=    100 

92=        81 

2^=     4 

20^  =    400 

992=    9801 

3^=    9 

30^=    900 

1002=  1 0000 

52=25 

502=  2500 

This  work  can  be  greatly  shortened  by  observing 
the  law  of  increase  stated  under  i.  Thus,  if  to  100, 
the  square  of  10,  we  add  21,  we  have  121,  the  square 
of  II.  To  this  we  must  add  23  to  get  the  square  of 
12 —  144;  and  to  this  25,  to  obtain  169,  the  square 
of   13,  etc. 

5.  Explain  what  is  meant  by  the  "square  root  "  of 
a  number —  "one  of  two  equal  factors  of  that  num- 
ber ; "  "a  second  number  which  multiplied  by  itself 
will  produce  the  first ;  "   chat  it  is  represented  by  the 


METHOD    OF   TEACHING   AKTrHMETJC.         233 

length  of  one  side  of  the  square  figure  that  repre- 
sents the  number.  Explain  that  "  finding  the  square 
root  "  of  a  number  is  finding  that  equal  factor,  or  that 
one  side. 

6.  The  pupils  should  now  be  drilled  on  the  table, 
(i)   Such  questions  as,   What   is  the  square  of  4? 

What  is  the  square  root  of  16.'  The  square  of  9.^ 
The  square  root  of  81  .''  The  square  of  25  1  The 
square  root  of  625  .''  etc.,  should  render  them  very 
familiar  with  the  table  without  requiring  them  to 
memorize  it. 

(2)  They  should  be  led  to  observe  the  "  perfect 
squares  "  in  the  table  ;  that  there  are  no  other  per- 
fect squares  —  none,  for  example,  between  144  and 
169  ;  that  as  the  square  root  of  144  is  12,  and  the 
square  root  of  169  is  13,  there  can  be  no  square  root 
of  150,  which  is  a  whole  number,  for  there  is  no  whole 
number  between  12  and  13. 

(3)  They  should  be  drilled  in  finding  from  the  table 
the  square  roots  of  all  perfect  squares  between  i  and 
10,000  ;  then  of  finding  the  square  root,  to  within  one, 
of  all  other  numbers  below  10,000. 

The  practice  of  finding  by  inspection  the  approxi- 
mate square  root  of  numbers  is  very  important.  It 
greatly  simplifies  the  subject ;  it  often  serves  all  prac- 
tical purposes  without  going  further.  This  may  be 
taught  to  pupils  when  making  a  final  review  of  multi- 
plication and  division. 

7.  They  may  now  be  led  to  observe  from  the  table 
that  the  square  of  units  cannot  contain  more  than 
two  figures,  since  the  square  of  9,  the  largest  unit, 


234 


STUDIES   IX  PEDAGOGY. 


is  only  8i  ;  consequently  the  square  root  of  any  per- 
fect square  which  is  less  than  lOO  must  be  units.  In 
the  same  way  lead  them  to  see  by  examining  the 
table  that  the  square  of  tens  gives  hundreds  or 
thousands,  and  in  no  case  can  the  square  of  tens 
(99)  exceed  four  places  (9,801)  ;  hence  the  square  root 
of  any  number  consisting  of  three  or  four  places  will 
be  composed  of  two  figures,  tens  and  units. 

8.  They  may  now  be  drilled  in  finding  the  square 
root  of  easy  numbers  (perfect  squares  and  small  num- 
bers whose  root  is  known)  by  construction.  For 
example,  the  square  root  of  625  must  consist  of 
two  figures  (625)  ;  the  left-hand  figure  of  the  root 
cannot  exceed  two  tens,  or  twenty.  Its  square  must 
be  400.  But  400  does  not  exhaust  the  625,  and  the 
square  must  be  made  larger.  This  can  only  be  done 
by  adding  to  it  successively  two  rectangles  20  X  5,  and 
a  square  5X5.  This  will  use  up  all  the  number,  and 
625  will  be  found  to  be  the  surface  of  a  square  whose 
side  is  20 -f-  5,  or  25. 

Let  these  problems  be  repeated  until  the  process 

of  construction  becomes  familiar.    The  pupil  wiliyir^/ 

the  necessity  for  each  step,  can  be  led  to  tell  what 

he  does  and  why,  and  is  thus  able  to  enunciate  a  rule 

25     for  extracting  the  square  root. 

9.  Students  who  are  unacquainted  with 
algebra  may  be  led  to  see  that  when  25  is 
squared  —  multiplied  by  itself  —  the  product 
625  consists  of  four  hundred,  the  square  of 
the  tens  ;  two  hundred,  twice  the  product 
of  the  tens  by  the  units  ;  and  twenty-five,  the  square 
of  the  units. 


METHOD    OF  TEACHING  ARITHMETIC.        235 

In  extracting  the  square  root  of  625,  when  he  has 
taken  away  400,  the  square  of  the  tens  (20),  there 
will  be  a  remainder,  225,  made  up  of  two  times  the 
tens,  or  forty,  multiplied  by  the  units,  and  of  the 
square  of  the  units.  That  is,  the  remainder,  225, 
is  made  up  of  two  parts, — -the  square  of  the  units 
figure,  which  we  may  ignore  for  a  time,  and  another 
number  which  is  a  product  of  two  numbers,  one  of 
which  is  given,  namely,  twice  the  tens,  —  and  that 
consequently  if  we  divide  225  by  40  we  shall  probably 
ascertain  what  the  other  factor,  the  unit  figure  of  the 
root,  is.  The  quotient  is  5.  Testing  the  result,  we 
find  that  225  consists  of  two  times  the  tens,  40,  by 
the  units  (5),  or  200,  plus  25,  the  square  of  the  units  ; 
hence  the  figure  5  is  correct,  and  the  true  root  is  25. 
In  the  same  way  build  up  the  square  of  45,  6},,  82, 
etc.,  and  then  proceed  to  find  by  construction  the 
roots  of  the  squares  thus  formed. 

More  advanced  students  can  be  taught  the  formula, 
(a  -\-  b)2  =  a^  -|-  2ab  -\-  b^,  or  factoring,  =  a^  -|~  (2a  + 
b)  b. 

The  mystery  of  "  doubling  the  root  already  found 
for  a  trial  divisor"  is  made  clear  by  showing  that 
every  remainder,  after  taking  away  the  square  of  the 
tens  (a^),  is  made  up  of  two  factors  (2a  -{-  b)  and  b ; 
that  is,  twice  the  tens  plus  the  units,  and  the  units. 
One  of  these  factors  is  approximately  known  because 
the  larger  part  (2a),  twice  the  tens,  is  known.  The 
other  can  be  found  approximately  by  dividing  the 
entire  remainder  by  the  two  tens.  The  square  root 
is  simply  evolving  what  has  been  involved.      If  the 


236  STUDIES  IX  PEDAGOGY. 

pupils  can  see  how  squares  are  made  they  can  under- 
stand how  they  are  unmade. 

10.  At  this  point  a  very  little  pains  will  suffice  to 
explain  the  method  of  extracting  the  square  root  of 
decimals  and  of  common  fractions. 

11.  When  they  have  become  familiar  with  the 
foregoing  they  should  be  instructed  in  the  properties 
of  the  right-angled  triangle,  with  the  meaning  of  the 
terms  "  base,"  "  altitude,"  and  "  hypothenuse,"  and 
the  relation  to  each  other  of  the  squares  described 
thereon.  Then  various  problems  can  be  given,  or 
better,  required,  involving  the  use  of  these  facts. 
In  the  earlier  stages  of  the  work  diagrams  should 
be  required,  illustrative  of  the  method  of  solution  of 
each  problem. 

This  method  of  teaching  the  square  root  rests  upon 
a  few  simple  principles  :  — 

1.  The  subject  of  evolution  should  be  presented  as 
the  counterpart  of  involution.  First  make  the  square, 
and  then  unmake  it.  Show  its  relation  to  the  familiar 
processes  of  multiplication  and  of  factoring. 

2.  Every  step  in  the  work  should  be  made  evident 
to  the  eye.  Use  diagrams  freely.  Nothing  should 
be  memorized. 

3.  Only  one  difficulty  should  be  presented  at  a 
time. 

4.  Each  advancing  step  should  be  made  very 
familiar  to  the  pupil  by  copious  drill  exercises. 

5.  Lead  him  to  do  his  own  work  as  far  as  possible, 
make  his  own  tables,  construct  his  own  squares,  ex- 
plain his  own  processes,  and  deduce  his  own   rule. 


METHOD    OF   TEACHING  ARITHMETIC.        237 

Original  problems  involving  square  root  are  much 
more  valuable  to  the  student  than  any  found  in 
books  or  made  by  his  teacher.  Everything  should 
be  thought  out. 

6.  When  the  process  has  been  thoroughly  mastered 
and  described  in  the  pupil's  own  language  then  the 
rule  of  the  book  may  be  learned  and  repeated  until 
it  becomes  familiar 


XVII. 

EXAMINATIONS. 


It  cannot  be  too  often  insisted  on  that  examination  is  a  good 
educational  servant,  but  a  bad  master. 

"  A  Protest,"  The  A'ineteenth  Century,  A^ovember,  1888. 

Examinations  in  our  schools  cannot  cease.  They  are  a  compo- 
nent part  of  the  school.  They  should  be  reasonable.  When  all  are 
so  the  better  part  of  the  profession  will  have  no  cause  to  condemn. 

Aaron  Gove. 


What  an  eye-opener  a  searching  v.ritten  examination  would  be 

in  schools  where  teachers  talk  and  explain  much  and  the  pupils  recite 

very  little;    where  the   instruction   is   given   largely   in   the   form   of 

running  talks  without  a  halt  to  test  results ! 

E,  E.  White. 


I  BELIEVE  an  examination  should  seek  for  outlines  of  thought, 
fundamental  principles,  general  laws,  comprehensive  summaries,  and 
not  for  detached  facts,  minute  details,  or  special  items  of  knowledge. 

H.  S.  Tarbell. 


XVII. 

EXAMINATIONS. 

Examinations  wisely  conducted  are  a  process  of  teaching  as  well  as 
of  testing.  —  George  A.  Littlefield. 

The  subject  of  school  examinations  is  much 
mooted,  and  the  most  extreme  views  are  expressed 
regarding  them.  Like  every  other  educational 
device  they  are  good  or  evil  according  as  they 
are  used  judiciously  or  without  discretion.  By 
examinations  is  here  meant  written  exercises  pro- 
duced to  answer  sets  of  questions  proposed  in 
writing  by  the  examiner.  These  exercises  serve 
many  useful  purposes,  some  of  which  are  here 
named. 

I.  They  may  serve  as  a  stimulus  or  incentive  to 
study.  Students  who  know  that  at  some  period  of 
their  course  they  will  be  required  to  give  written 
answers  to  questions  based  on  the  work  done  are 
likely  to  be  more  attentive,  industrious,  and  inter- 
ested in  it. 

There  is  constant  need  of  some  motive  to  keep 
the  mind  active  and  attentive.  There  are  many 
distractions;  every  student  is  liable  to  lose  interest 
in  study,  especially  if  it  has  no  special  inherent 
attraction  for  him.  Constant  appeal  to  the  highest 
motives  should  be  made,  and   all   proper  effort   put 

241 


242  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

forth  to  render  the  study  attractive  for  its  own  sake. 
The  incentive  of  the  approaching  examination  should 
be  used  sparingly ;  indeed,  not  at  all,  perhaps,  unless 
it  is  needed  ;  but  when  it  is  needed,  it  is  one  of  the 
legitimate  agents  at  the  schoolmaster's  command. 

2.  They  encourage  thoroughness.  Those  who 
prepare  for  an  oral  recitation  may  depend  upon 
chance  or  artifice  or  favoritism  to  help  them 
through  ;  but  a  searching  examination  calling  for 
exact  written  statements  is  another  matter,  and 
demands  better  preparation.  It  is  easier  for  most 
young  persons  to  talk  than  it  is  for  them  to  write. 
Less  preparation  is  required  for  them  to  make  a 
passable  recitation  than  to  write  a  paper,  so  that  if 
a  paper  is  never  demanded  they  are  likely  to  do  only 
so  much  work  as  will  enable  them  to  meet  the 
requirements  of  an  oral  recitation. 

Besides,  what  is  spoken  is  fleeting,  what  is  v/ritten 
is  permanent.  What  is  spoken  cannot  so  readily  be 
dissected,  analyzed,  and  criticized.  But  when  the 
teacher  has  before  him  the  written  statement  he 
can  subject  it  to  the  most  rigid  criticism,  and  the 
fact  that  this  can,  and  probably  will,  be  done  leads 
the  pupil  to  devote  more  care  to  the  thorough 
mastery  of  the  subject. 

3.  They  afford  an  opportunity,  in  some  instances, 
for  a  review  of  the  whole  subject  passed  over  during 
the  term.  The  lessons  from  day  to  day  are  liable  to 
be  fragmentary,  disassociated  from  the  general  topic. 
This  is  not  a  fault  but  rather  a  virtue.  When 
examining  a  particular  gem  one  does  not  wish  to  be 


EXAM/NATIONS  243 

obliged  to  hold  before  the  mind  the  whole  science 
of  mineralogy.  Every  lesson,  however,  has  its  rela- 
tions to  a  general  topic.  Science  is  essentially  the 
knowledge  of  subjects  in  their  relations  and  inter- 
dependencies.  Examinations  may  provoke  to  such  a 
review  as  will  bring  the  whole  before  the  mind  in 
such  a  way  as  to  call  into  clear  light  the  logical 
relations  of  its  several  parts.  If  this  review  scans 
the  subject  as  a  whole,  and  fuses  it  in  the  mind  so 
that  it  is  held,  as  it  were,  in  solution,  there  is  great 
gain.  The  review  should  be  not  merely  a  roll-call 
for  facts,  but  a  thought  exercise  in  quest  of  logical 
mastery  of  the  subject. 

■  4.  They  are  often  valuable  as  an  exercise  in 
English  composition,  requiring  as  they  do  clear, 
concise,  comprehensive  statements.  One  of  the 
great  ends  to  be  obtained  by  study  is  power  of 
expression.  One  needs  not  only  to  know,  but  to 
be  able  to  express  what  he  knows.  It  is  not  enough 
to  be  able  to  express  it  in  oral  speech,  but  it  is 
important  to  know  how  to  express  it  in  written 
language  also.  Literature  is  a  valuable  result  of 
education.  The  practice  of  giving  in  a  few  pages 
of  terse,  good  English  the  result  of  one's  study  for 
months  of  a  particular  branch  of  learning  is  an 
admirable  preparation  for  authorship, 

5.  They  are  revelations  to  the  pupils  of  their  own 
ability  and  attainments,  as  well  as  of  their  weakness 
and  defects.  One  great  aim  of  education  is  to 
objectify  the  student's  mind  so  that  he  may  look 
upon  himself,    "  see  himself  as  others  see   him,"  in 


244  -^ ^ UDIES  IN  PEDA GOGY. 

order  that  he  may  have  a  just  estimate  of  himself. 
When  he  has  pored  over  a  textbook  for  a  few  weeks, 
recited  from  it,  listened  to  recitations  by  his  class- 
mates, and  explanations  by  his  teacher,  he  may  easily 
be  deceived  as  to  the  real  extent  of  his  knowledge. 
An  examination  that  requires  him  to  state  in  writing 
just  what  he  actually  knows  often  serves  to  undeceive 
him.  Conscious  ignorance  not  only  takes  away 
conceit,  but  is  frequently  the  very  beginning  of 
knowledge. 

6.  They  call  for  concentration  of  mind,  sustained 
mental  effort,  and  a  ready  use  of  one's  resources, 
which  is  a  valuable  educational  discipline.  In  the 
class  students  may  depend  upon  each  other  and  may 
lean  heavily  upon  the  teacher.  In  the  examinations 
they  must  depend  upon  themselves.  Whatever  of 
intellectual  energy  is  put  forth  must  be  self-evolved. 
It  cannot  be  called  forth  by  others :  it  is  the 
student's  own  act. 

A  recitation  is  short,  and  in  a  large  class  makes 
comparatively  little  demand  upon  any  one  individual. 
In  an  examination  a  demand  may  be  made  for  as 
long  a  continuous  concentration  of  mind  as  the 
student  is  capable  of.  When  not  too  prolonged  and 
severe,  these  examinations  are  periods  of  mental 
growth.  Many  students  at  such  times  become 
conscious  of  a  degree  of  mental  power  of  which 
they  did  not  know  themselves  to  be  possessed. 
They  rise  to  a  higher  plane  of  intellectual  activity, 
and  look  back  to  successive  examinations  as  a 
traveler  looks  back  to  the  successive  heights  he 
has  climbed  in  reaching  the  summit  of  his  ambition. 


EXAMINATIONS.  245 

7.  They  reveal  to  the  teacher  the  results  of  his 
teaching,  the  failure  or  success  of  his  methods,  and 
thus  afford  an  opportunity  of  modifying  his  work 
when  necessary.  Teachers  are  prone  to  mistake 
the  attentive  listening  of  the  student  for  a  real 
appropriation  of  his  teaching.  The  steady  eye  does 
not  always  betoken  an  understanding  mind. 

The  test  of  good  teaching  is  the  independent 
mental  activity  awakened  in  the  mind  of  the  pupil. 
Whether  this  exists  or  not  cannot  always  be  known 
from  oral  recitation.  The  presence  of  the  teacher 
and  the  stimulus  of  his  eye  and  voice  may  arouse  an 
energy  that  wanes  when  he  is  absent.  He  looks  for 
permanent  results.  The  written  examination  paper 
that  is  the  sole  product  of  the  student's  thought  is  a 
revealer  of  how  far  the  teacher's  efforts  to  awaken 
permanent  intellectual  activity  and  to  impart  real 
knowledge  have  been  successful. 

8.  The  tabulated  results  of  a  series  of  examinations, 
extending  through  several  months  or  years,  indicate 
with  considerable  certainty  the  student's  trend  of 
mind,  habits  of  study,  and  scholarly  development. 
These  results  arc  especially  valuable  to  parents  in 
deciding  what  is  best  for  their  children. 

It  is  desirable  that  the  education  of  a  child  should 
be  many-sided.  All  his  powers  should  be  called  into 
action  and  should  be  symmetrically  developed.  The 
tendency  is  for  the  pupil  to  have  a  liking  for  a 
certain  class  of  studies,  as  for  mathematics,  or 
natural  science,  or  language,  and  to  pursue  these 
to  the  neglect  of  other  branches   of  learning,   and 


246  STUDIES  m  PEDAGOGY. 

thus  fail  to  secure  both  general  culture  and  liberal 
knowledge.  This  trend  of  mind  is  nowhere  more 
distinctly  shown  than  in  the  results  of  examinations. 
They  sometimes  reveal  such  unexpected  power  in 
some  certain  direction  as  to  warrant  an  early  special- 
ization of  study. 

9.  The  rpsults  are  helpful  to  superintendents  and 
others  in  forming  an  opinion  of  the  progress  of  the 
pupils  and  the  work  of  the  teacher.  There  is  need 
of  supervision  of  the  work  done  where  many  teachers 
are  employed  in  the  same  or  similar  schools.  Espe- 
cially is  it  needful  to  have  an  eye  on  the  work  of 
those  who  are  young  and  inexperienced.  Personal 
visits  on  the  part  of  the  superintendent  are  valuable 
in  certain  directions,  but  the  written  questions  pre- 
pared as  a  test  of  the  work  done,  and  the  character 
of  the  papers  submitted  in  answer,  are  invaluable  as 
indicating  the  nature  of  the  work  accomplished  by 
the  teachers. 

As  one  element  in  determining  the  fitness  of 
pupils  for  promotion  they  perform  an  office  that 
cannot  be  performed  by  any  other  agency. 

10.  They  give  to  school  work  a  kind  of  dignity, 
increase  the  student's  self-respect,  and  impart  to  the 
teacher's  mind  a  judicial  habit,  freeing  him  from  the 
great  tendency  to  judge  of  his  pupils  by  sentimental 
regard  rather  than  by  critical  judgment. 

Study  is  work  and  not  play.  School  life  has  a 
serious  side  to  it ;  it  is  a  preparation  for  the  conflicts 
and  struggles  that  are  inevitable  when  schooldays 
are  over.     Every  exercise  should  be  so  conducted  as 


EXAMINA  TIONS.  247 

to  contribute  to  the  final  end  of  developing  a  sturdy, 
honest,  independent  manhood.  The  pupil  should  be 
taught  that  he  must  stand  alone  and  be  judged 
on  the  merits  of  his  work.  Written  examinations 
develop  this  spirit. 

It  is  hard  for  favoritism  or  for  a  too  generous  pity 
to  break  through  the  restraints  of  examination  papers, 
and  to  give  to  one  unmerited  credit  and  withhold 
from  others  rewards  honestly  earned. 

With  these  ends  in  view,  how  shall  the  examina- 
tions be  conducted  .'*  • 

1.  They  should  be  an  ordinary,  and  not  an  extra- 
ordinary, part  of  school  machinery.  If  they  are  held 
only  at  the  close  of  a  term  or  at  the  conclusion  of  a 
study,  the  students  should  be  prepared  for  them  by 
the  character  of  the  daily  recitation,  and  by  occasional 
written  recitations,  and  "tests,"  which  resemble  the 
written  examinations,  but  are  less  severe. 

Pupils  who  are  trained  to  express  their  thoughts 
in  writing  acquire  great  facility  in  doing  so  and  lose 
nearly  all  their  dread  and  anxiety  on  the  approach  of 
an  examination. 

The  great  labor  incident  in  making  out  sets  of 
questions  and  looking  over  a  large  number  of  papers 
may  be  abridged  by  training  the  pupils  to  share  the 
work  with  the  teacher. 

2.  The  purpose  and  method  of  the  examination 
should  be  fully  explained  to  the  pupils  and  their 
mistakes  and  failures  should  be  pointed  out. 

The  antipathy  which  many  of  them  have  to  exami- 
nations arises  frequently  from  a  misunderstanding  of 


248  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

their  purpose.  They  often  regard  them  apparently 
as  traps  and  pitfalls  set  to  catch  the  unwary. 
Sometimes  they  complain  of  them  as  unfair.  This 
can  be  prevented  by  —  fairness,  and  a  full  exposition 
of  the  principles  followed  in  marking. 

3.  The  questions  should  be  adapted  to  the  age  and 
ability  of  the  pupils,  easy  enough  to  encourage  them 
to  attempt  all,  and  difficult  enough  to  call  for  their 
best  efforts  :  should  pertain  to  the  work  actually 
done  :  should  be  explicit,  concise,  logical,  requiring 
thought  and  a  mastery  of  principles  as  well  as 
memory. 

It  is  no  small  art  to  question  correctly.  There  is 
no  surer  test  of  the  teacher's  power  than  this.  There 
is  no  greater  qualification  for  successful  teaching  than 
the  ability  to  question  well.  Great  attention  should 
be  paid  to  the  acquisition  of  this  power. 

Advanced  pupils,  particularly  normal  students, 
should  be  carefully  trained  in  framing  questions, 
singly  and  in  sets.  There  is  no  better  review  of  a 
subject  than  is  involved  in  making  out  a  series  of 
questions  covering  it. 

4.  Too  much  importance  should  not  be  attached 
to  the  results.  They  should  be  reckoned  as  only 
one  element,  among  several,  in  determining  the 
standing  of  the  student  and  his  fitness  for  pro- 
motion or  graduation.  They  should  never  be  made 
the  basis  of  ranking  or  the  sole  ground  of  promotion. 

There  are  some  elements  of  intellectual  and  moral 

growth  that  perhaps  cannot  be  tested  by  questions. 

A  written  examination  at  best  is  an  imperfect  test 


EXAM  IN  A  TIONS. 


249 


even  of  knowledge.  It  should  not  be  allowed  to 
usurp  too  large  a  place  in  the  routine  of  school  life. 
This  it  may  easily  do,  and  often  does. 

5.  Examinations  should  always  be  regarded  as 
simply  one  means  or  device  in  the  process  of  edu- 
cation and  should  never  be  treated  as  if  they  were 
the  goal  to  be  gained.  They  are  a  means,  and  not 
an  end. 

The  daily  recitations  are  chiefly  to  be  relied  on  in 
determining  the  pupil's  work,  and  should  take 
precedence  over  the  examinations  in  determining 
progress  and  fitness  for  promotion.  We  should 
not  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  the  chief  value  of 
the  examination  is  its  reflex  influence  on  the  daily 
recitations. 

6.  They  should  not  be  so  severe  or  prolonged  as 
to  overtax  the  student's  powers,  should  be  conducted 
with  absolute  fairness  and  impartiality,  as  well  as 
with  good  sense  in  regard  to  time,  place,  and  condi- 
tions ;  and  proper  allowance  should  be  made  for  any 
exceptional  circumstances,  such  as  illness  on  the 
part  of  the  student.  The  "final"  examination 
should  be  held  long  enough  before  the  close  of 
the  term  to  allow  the  teacher  to  make  the  proper 
use  of  the  results  before  the  class  separates. 

The  outcry  lately  raised  in  England  against 
competitive  examinations,  which  has  voiced  itself 
in  the  imposing  "Protest"  published  in  The  Nine- 
teenth Century  for  November,  1888,  is  not  pertinent 
when  applied  to  examinations  as  school  exercises. 
The  evils  complained  of  in   that   famous  paper  are 


250  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

due  in  part  to  the  incidental  abuse  of  examinations, 
and  in  part,  as  is  shown  in  the  reply  published  in  The 
Nineteenth  Century  for  December,  1888,  to  the  state 
of  the  civil  service  and  the  condition  of  society  in 
England.  Teachers  should  not  be  frightened  into 
the  abandonment  of  a  faithful  and  indispensable 
servant  on  the  first  whisper  of  evil  against  his  good 
name. 


XVIII. 
THE    IDEAL  SCHOOLMASTER. 


God  mouldeth  some  for  a  schoolmaster's  life. 

Thomas  Fuller. 


The  brightest  minds  of  Athenian  philosophy  were  the  instructors 

of  the  Athenian  youth. 

John  Lalor. 


O'er  wayward  childhood  would'st  thou  hold  firm  rule, 
And  sun  thee  in  the  light  of  happy  faces, 
Love,  Hope,  and  Patience,  these  must  be  thy  graces, 
And  in  thine  own  heart  let  them  first  keep  school. 

S.  T.  Coleridge. 

Full  well  they  laughed  with  counterfeited  glee 
At  all  his  jokes,  for  many  a  joke  had  he. 

Oliver  Goldsmith 

He  must  pour  out  upon   them   the   results    of  his   reading,  his 

thought  and  experience,  with  unsparing  prodigality,  forgetful  of  himself 

and  his  own  reputation;    even  willing,  like  a  true  mother,  to  give  up 

his   own   mental   being  if  he   can   only  see   the    life   of  other   souls 

springing  into  power  under  his  hand. 

Martin  B.  Anderson. 


XVIII. 
THE   IDEAL   SCHOOLMASTER. 

Although  we  may  never  be  able  fully  to  realize  our  ideal,  yet  woe  be 
to  us  if  we  have  no  ideal  to  realize.  —  Archibshop  Whately. 

Crowning  the  Acropolis  at  Athens  stand  the 
ruins  of  what  was  once  the  most  beautiful  temple 
in  the  world.  Faultless  in  its  proportions,  wellnigh 
perfect  in  the  execution  of  its  details,  of  the  purest 
white  marble,  and  adorned  with  sculpture  of  the 
most  exquisite  workmanship,  it  was  the  glory  of 
Athens,  the  pride  of  Greece,  and  a  wonder  of  the 
world.  Even  in  its  ruins  the  Parthenon  draws  to 
itself  with  magnetic  power  the  hearts  of  all  lovers 
of  the  beautiful. 

For  centuries  in  many  countries  the  human  mind 
had  wrought  at  an  ideal  of  the  beautiful  in  the  form 
of  a  temple.  At  last  the  ideal  was  reached ;  it  has 
never  been  surpassed.  The  Parthenon  did  not  indeed 
fully  embody  that  ideal.  The  ideal  never  becomes 
real.  The  mind  may  seize  it,  but  the  hands  never. 
As  an  ethereal  vision  it  may  be  faultless,  but  as  an 
embodied  reality,  wrought  in  gross  materials  by 
human  workmanship,  it  will  reveal  many  a  flaw  and 
defect.  Nevertheless  as  an  ideal,  what  power  it  had 
over  men's  minds  !  What  resources,  what  skill,  what 
energy,  what  sacrifice,  what   patient  waiting   did  it 

253 


254  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

evoke,  until  at  last  men  saw,  admired,  and  loved  it 
as  "a  thing  of  beauty,  and  a  joy  forever."  What 
sovereignty  that  ideal  has  had  over  men's  minds ! 
In  every  age  and  in  every  country  artists  have  bor- 
rowed from  the  Parthenon,  and  have  attempted 
countless  times,  in  whole  or  in  part,  to  reproduce 
this  matchless  building.  Even  those  who  have  bent 
their  energies  to  develop  a  style  of  architecture 
wholly  different  —  Byzantine,  Roman,  or  Gothic  — 
have  felt  the  strange  spell  of  this  ideal  urging 
them  to  their  utmost  endeavor,  that  what  they  pro- 
duced should  be  as  perfect  of  its  kind  as  that 
ideal  of  the  Greek  temple,  which  lent  such  grace 
and  beauty  to  the  shrine  of  the  virgin  goddess. 

It  is  ever  thus  with  ideals.  Seemingly  baseless  as 
the  fabric  of  a  vision,  they  are  the  most  indestruc- 
tible of  human  creations.  An  ideal  once  formed 
never  perishes  from  the  earth.  It  belongs  to  the 
empire  of  truth,  whose  subjects  are  immortal. 

It  may  not  be  unprofitable  for  us  here  to  con- 
sider for  a  little  while  —  even  though  the  picture  be 
drawn  only  in  outline,  and  that  by  an  unpractised 
and  unskilful  hand — -the  ideal  of  a  schoolmaster. 

We  are  the  representatives  of  three  hundred 
thousand  American  schoolmasters,  in  whose  hands 
are  placed  very  largely  the  destinies  of  ten  millions 
of  school  children.  What  manner  of  teachers  should 
we  be  }  What  is  our  aim  ?  Toward  what  are  we 
striving  .-• 

It  is  perhaps  needless  to  say  that  the  term  school- 
master is  used  as  including  all  of  those  who  devote 


THE   IDEAL   SCHOOLMASTER. 


255 


themselves  to  teaching.  It  is  not  restricted  to  any 
one  class  or  grade  or  sex.  In  this  day,  when  so 
many  teachers  are  women,  any  discussion  of  teach- 
ing which  did  not  apply  to  them  and  their  noble 
work  would  be  fatally  defective. 

It  may  also  be  well  to  add  that  the  effort  in  this 
paper  is  to  present  the  spirit  of  teaching,  the  tout 
ensemble  of  pedagogical  virtues,  rather  than  to 
sketch  the  portrait  of  any  single  individual.  Should 
any  of  us  measure  ourselves  by  a  perfect  standard, 
we  might  well  be  abashed,  but  when  we  look  upon 
our  associates  and  realize  that  we  are  members  of  a 
great  and  noble  brotherhood  of  earnest  and  true 
workers,  who,  taken  together,  represent  all  that 
can  be  claimed  for  the  teacher,  we  may  well  "take 
courage,"  and  strive,  each  in  his  own  sphere  and 
according  to  the  measure  of  his  ability  and  of  his 
opportunities,  to  share  in  this  ideal  spirit,  and  to 
contribute  something  to  the  sum  total  of  teaching 
power. 

No  artist,  however  humble,  if  he  did  but  have  the 
spirit  of  the  artist,  ever  stood  in  the  presence  of  the 
Parthenon  without  feeling  his  soul  quickened  and 
his  aspirations  ennobled.  Even  a  picture  of  the 
temple  in  ruins  stirs  men's  souls.  If  the  sketch  of 
the  ideal  schoolmaster  which  I  now  hold  before  you 
is  true  to  nature,  it  may  be  helpful  to  some  at  least, 
and  harmful  to  none. 

What  now  is  our  ideal  of  the  teacher  1 

The  ideal  schoolmaster  is  a  manly  man,  one  who 
has  lofty  conceptions  of  human  life  and  duty,  gen- 


256  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

erous  sympathies,  keen  discernment  of  life's  realities, 
and  who  fully  appreciates  its  responsibilities  and 
privileges. 

Conscious  of  ability  of  a  high  order,  of  refined 
tastes,  of  large  possibilities  of  achievement  and  en- 
joyment, he  will  find  in  his  work  of  teaching  ample 
scope  for  all  his  powers  and  attainments.  As  one 
who  is  to  shape  human  destinies  and  mold  human 
lives  quite  as  much  by  what  he  is  as  by  what  he 
does,  he  is  guided  in  all  his  actions  by  manly  prin- 
ciples. Keen  and  accurate  in  his  observation  of 
facts,  deliberate  in  his  conclusions,  wise  in  his  enact- 
ments, judicial  in  his  decisions,  just  in  his  adminis- 
tration, inflexible  in  his  adherence  to  right,  consistent 
in  all  things,  full  of  kindliness  and  helpfulness  in 
discipline,  patient  with  dullness  and  tender  of  the 
weak  and  unfortunate,  always  making  new  acquisi- 
tions for  himself,  and  not  only  earnestly  interested 
in  the  welfare  of  each  member  of  his  little  kingdom, 
but  an  active,  intelligent,  useful  member  of  the 
community  in  which  he  resides,  he  is  a  man  to  be 
admired  for  his  true  manliness.  Teaching  has  its 
boundaries  and  imposes  restrictions  a  little  irksome 
at  times,  but  this  is  true  of  every  human  calling.  It 
is  incident  to  life.  The  soul  of  man,  because  it  is  a 
soul,  feels  deeply  the  limitations  of  matter.  This  is 
prophetic  of  a  realm  of  pure  spirit.  But  the  ideal 
schoolmaster  finds  in  his  field  of  labor  fullest  oppor- 
tunity for  the  exercise  of  the  greatest  and  noblest 
qualities  of  manhood.  He  has  entered  a  profession 
where  the  possibilities  of  labor  are  boundless,  where 


THE  IDEAL    SCHOOLMASTER. 


■57 


new  fields  of  thought  and  knowledge  are  ever  pre- 
senting themselves,  where  there  are  opportunities  of 
seeing  reproduced  in  other  lives  all  that  is  noblest 
and  best  in  his  own. 

Teaching  is  a  profession  so  honorable  that  it 
confers  dignity  upon  all  who  enter  it  worthily,  and 
borrows  dignity  from  none.  No  man  ever  yet  was 
so  great  that  he  might  not  have  found  in  teaching 
exigencies  for  which  his  greatness  would  not  suffice. 

The  ideal  schoolmaster  blends  in  himself  such  ele- 
ments of  body  and  mind  and  heart  that  all,  not  only 
those  who  from  their  inferior  position  may  even  look 
up  to  him  as  a  superior  being,  but  all  who  have 
relations  with  him,  whether  personal  or  official,  busi- 
ness, social,  or  professional,  will  unite  in  saying. 
This  is  a  man.  Not  a  transcendental  being,  in  the 
world  but  not  of  it,  but  a  man  of  the  people,  a 
veritable  product  of  his  age,  a  typical  representative 
of  the  best  results  of  the  civilization  of  his  time. 
Dwarfed  he  may  be  by  his  environment,  but  he  is 
all  the  more  truly  manly  by  this.  The  superhuman 
only  can  rise  above  human  infirmities.  Even  Jesus, 
that  he  might  become  the  great  Teacher  of  our  race, 
emptied  himself  and  became  a  man. 

The  ideal  schoolmaster  is  not  a  recluse,  not  a 
pillar  saint,  not  a  hermit,  not  a  morose  man,  nor  one 
solemnly  weighed  down  by  either  a  sense  of  his  own 
dignity  or  of  the  grave  responsibilities  of  his  office, 
but  a  man  living  among  men,  practical,  full  of  com- 
monsense,  tact,  and  worldly  wisdom.  He  is  all  the 
better   for  a  little    rough    experience    in    "  boarding 


258 


STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 


round,"  that  he  may  see  himself  as  others  see  him, 
and  —  others  as  they  are.  A  man  of  energy,  force 
of  character,  of  good  business  habits,  promptness, 
decision,  regularity,  and  fidelity,  having  a  just  regard 
for  himself,  his  good  name,  his  personal  habits  and 
appearance,  respectful  of  the  rights  of  others,  con- 
siderate of  their  feelings,  polite  in  manner,  gentle  in 
speech,  he  is  positive  without  rudeness,  independent 
without  asperity,  refined  without  being  effeminate, 
and  elegant  without  losing  his  simplicity. 

The  highest  type  of  manliness  does  not  exclude  a 
keen  relish  for  humor.  The  young  are  full  of  frolic 
and  play;  they  like  a  joke,  enjoy  a  laugh,  and  are  won 
by  a  smile.  Sunshine  is  more  effective  in  germinat- 
ing plants,  developing  flowers,  and  maturing  fruit, 
than  darkness.  Potato  vines  do,  to  be  sure,  grow  in 
a  cellar,  but  they  are  pale  and  sickly.  Frost  has  its 
uses,  and  doubtless  the  world  has  need  of  icebergs,  or 
the  North  would  not  produce  them  so  abundantly. 
But  we  should  have  a  dreary  climate  were  it  not  for 
the  south  wind  and  the  Gulf  Stream. 

The  ideal  schoolmaster  is  a  pJiilantJiropist,  one  who 
loves  man  as  man,  one  who  recognizes  the  inherent 
dignity  of  the  human  soul,  one  who  grasps  the  basal 
unity  of  all,  of  whatever  race,  condition,  or  sex ;  who 
accepts  practically  the  one  supreme  fact  that  every 
being  who  bears  God's  image  has  in  germ  the  possi- 
bilities of  all  human  excellence  and  attainments,  and 
is  entitled  to  the  fullest  development  possible  of  all 
his  powers.  That  which  marred  the  noble  ideal  of 
education  formulated  by  Plato  and  Aristotle  was  the 


THE  IDEAL   SCHOOLMASTER.  259 

fact  that  it  was  limited  to  the  few,  while  the  many 
were  debarred  from  participating  in  its  advantages. 
The  ideal  schoolmaster  asks  for  talent,  or  rather 
teachableness,  wherever  it  may  be  found.  He  finds 
it  among  slaves  as  among  freeborn,  in  the  hovel  as 
in  the  palace,  among  the  outcasts  of  society  even  as 
among  the  rich,  the  titled,  and  the  proud.  To  be 
well  born  is  indeed  a  boon,  but  who  can  be  better 
born  than  he  who  has  God  for  a  father  t  No  ^^essi- 
mist  bemoaning  the  remediless  degradation  of  the 
race,  no  dyspeptic  deeming  all  men  fools  but  him- 
self, no  aristocrat  wondering  what  common  people 
could  ever  have  been  made  for,  no  educational  dude 
prating  of  culture  of  which  the  masses  are  incapable 
—  none  of  these  can  be  an  ideal  schoolmaster.  Only 
he  who  has  an  unconquerable  faith  in  human  nature, 
in  the  pedagogic  salvability  of  the  race,  who  has  an 
enthusiasm  for  young  people,  and  an  ardent  zeal  for 
the  unfortunate,  the  lowly,  the  poor,  and  the  igno- 
rant, who  with  a  beneficence  wellnigh  divine  would 
scatter  the  blessings  of  learning  freely  among  all 
classes  —  including  negroes,  Indians,  Chinese  —  typi- 
fies the  spirit  of  the  age  as  embodied  in  the  ideal 
schoolmaster. 

His  broad  philanthropy,  which  embrq,ces  in  its 
generous  scope  every  individual  of  the  race,  kindles 
to  a  white  heat  in  the  schoolroom,  and,  losing  its 
generic  character,  takes  the  form  of  an  intense  per- 
sonal interest  in  the  welfare  and  progress  of  every 
child  committed  to  his  care.  He  stands  heartily  as 
well  as  officially  in  loco  pare fitis. 


26g  studies  in  pedagogy. 

It  goes  without  saying  that  the  ideal  schoolmaster 
is  a  patriot.  As  a  student  of  history  he  recognizes 
the  almost  omnipotent  power  of  the  State  over 
human  destiny.  It  is  true,  in  a  sense,  that  the 
State,  with  its  constitution,  its  statutes,  its  institu- 
tions, is  the  creation  of  the  people,  the  organized 
expression  of  their  life,  and  yet  it  is  likewise  true 
that  the  State  in  turn  affects  most  powerfully  the 
life  of  the  people.  The  influence  of  the  State  per- 
vades every  city,  village,  hamlet,  farmhouse,  work- 
shop, and  fireside  like  an  atmosphere.  If  that 
atmosphere  is  malarious,  the  health  of  every  citizen 
suffers.  The  black  code  legalizing  and  protecting 
human  slavery  acted  like  a  rank  poison,  threatening 
to  destroy  our  national  life.  Fortunately  an  ^over- 
dose brought  on  a  crisis,  with  an  upheaving  that 
left  the  body  politic  weak,  but  purged  and  convales- 
cent. The  iniquitous  legislation  that  discriminates 
against  the  Chinese,  though  of  a  milder  form,  is  no 
less  marked  as  a  poison  that  is  doing  its  deadly  work. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  Emancipation  Proclamation, 
the  laws  against  polygamy,  the  enactm'ents  in  favor 
of  educating  the  Indian  and  of  lifting  the  mass  of 
colored  citizens  to  a  higher  plane  of  civilization,  act 
as  tonics,  or  rather,  they  are  food,  and  give  health 
and  strength  to  the  people.  The  ideal  schoolmaster, 
loving  his  country  as  the  land  that  gave  him  birth, 
and  as  the  cherishing  mother  whose  kindly  offices 
have  attended  him  from  his  earliest  years,  in  whose 
history  he  takes  pride  and  in  whose  future  his  hopes 
are  centred,  seeks  by  all  proper  means  to  promote 


THE  IDEAL    SCHOOLMASTER.  26 1 

her  weal  He  recognizes  his  obligations  as  a  citizen, 
and  gladly  shares  with  others  whatever  of  civic 
burdens  the  exigency  of  the  times  may  impose.  He 
is  not  at  liberty  to  wrap  the  silken  folds  of  his 
scholar's  gown  about  him,  refuse  to  "mix  in  poli- 
tics," and  thus  give  over  the  government,  with  all 
its  sacred  interests,  into  the  hands  of  those  who 
make  politics  a  trade,  who  gamble  in  public  offices, 
barter  their  souls  for  official  plunder,  and  who,  left 
to  themselves,  would  bring  upon  the  republic  the 
ruin  that  inevitably  awaits  us  when  good  men  and 
true  no  longer  feel  a  personal  responsibility,  not 
alone  for  their  vote,  but  for  the  full,  intelligent, 
conscientious  discharge  of  every  civic  duty. 

Looking  over  his  little  flock  of  pupils,  his  pene- 
trating eye  sees  beyond  the  present  into  the  not 
distant  future,  when  these  boys  and  girls  are  to  be 
the  men  and  women,  the  fathers  and  mothers,  to 
whose  hands  the  destinies  of  the  republic  are  to 
be  entrusted. 

In  some  of  his  daydreams  there  comes  to  him  a 
panoramic  vision.  He  sees  before  him  a  king  seated 
upon  a  throne,  swaying  a  righteous  sceptre  over  a 
vast  realm  and  mighty  people.  He  is  clothed  in 
purple,  wears  a  crown  glittering  with  gems,  and  holds 
a  golden  sceptre,  at  whose  motions  wars  are  waged, 
peace  maintained,  and  laws  enforced. 

The  scene  changes.  Before  him  rises  a  judgment 
hall ;  men  of  reverend  years  and  countenances  full 
of  that  majesty  that  is  born  of  wisdom,  experience, 
and  high  endeavor,  and  clothed  in  ermine,  typical  of 


262  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

their  purity  of  intention,  sit  to  try  great  causes, 
involving  the  property,  reputation,  and  life  of  the 
citizen,  and  the  maintenance  of  law  and  equity  in 
the  land. 

Again  the  scene  shifts.  A  vast  palace  of  marble 
stands  before  him,  its  lofty  dome  a  thing  of  beauty 
and  magnificence.  Within  are  men  gathered  from 
all  sections  of  the  republic  to  make  her  laws  and 
maintain  her  institutions.  Again  he  looks,  and  now 
there  comes  a  scene  more  impressive  than  any  that 
has  yet  gone  before.  On  a  November  day,  quietly 
as  though  it  were  an  ordinary  matter,  but  yet  gravely, 
as  if  appreciating  something  of  the  deep  significance 
of  the  act,  he  sees  ten  million  free  men  depositing  in 
their  appointed  places  the  single  ballots  that  make 
and  unmake  senators,  judges,  and  presidents,  revolu- 
tionize society,  and  reconstruct  constitutions. 

Who  are  these  potentates  }  these  mighty  ones  of 
the  earth  '^.  He  dreams  no  longer  ;  the  vision  is  a 
reality.  These  little  urchins  that  look  up  so  inno- 
cently, so  helplessly,  so  docilely  into  his  face  are  the 
future  sovereigns,  judges,  legislators,  voters,  who  now 
look  to  him  for  that  knowledge,  training,  inspiration, 
that  shall  enable  them  in  some  degree  to  fulfil  the 
august  duties  that  must  devolve  upon  them  as  their 
birthright  in  this  land  of  liberty.  Can  the  ideal 
schoolmaster  be  less  than  a  patriot  who  will  seek 
by  all  the  means  within  his  power  to  so  administer 
the  affairs  of  his  little  republic  that  it  shall  embody 
and  show  forth  in  miniature  all  those  exalted  virtues 
which  on  the  broader  plane  of  public  action  dignify 


THE   IDEAL    SCHOOLMASTER.  '     263 

human  nature,  enrich  the  national  life,  and  give  per- 
petuity to  the  nation  ?     He  knows 

"  That  the  riches  of  the  commonwealth 
Are  free,  strong  minds  and  hearts  of  health, 
And  more  to  her  than  gold  or  grain 
The  cunning  hand  and  cultured  brain." 

The  ideal  schoolmaster  is  a  scholar  —  a  man  who 
knows.  He  is  not  necessarily  a  walking  encyclopaedia, 
although  he  must  be  somewhat  encyclopaedic  in  his 
knowledge.  Of  course  he  must  know  facts.  He  is 
not  a  Gradgrind  attempting  to  measure  the  universe 
with  a  foot  rule,  and  refusing  to  admit  that  anything 
has  value  unless  it  can  be  estimated  in  dollars  and 
cents.  Nevertheless  facts,  things  done,  tangible 
realities,  actual  verities,  lie  at  the  basis  of  scholar- 
ship. They  are  the  foundation  of  all  reasoning. 
There  can  be  no  science  without  them.  There  can 
be  no  intelligence  without  them.  The  universe  is  a 
vast  congeries  of  facts,  with  some  of  which  the 
scholar  is  to  become  acquainted.  The  teacher's 
knowledge  of  facts  must  be  in  a  large  degree  imme- 
diate, he  must  grasp  them  in  the  concrete.  They 
must  be  a  part  of  his  experience.  At  least  typical 
phenomena,  physical,  metaphysical,  historical,  must 
pass  under  his  own  personal  observation,  and  thus 
afford  him  a  key  to  booklore.  Books  are  to  him 
simply  the  record  of  other  men's  observation  and 
reflection,  which  differ  from  his  own  chiefly  in  being 
more  extended.  His  acquaintance  with  facts  will  be 
accurate,  not  necessarily  exhaustive,  but  so  far  as  he 


264  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

forms  a  mental  picture  of  phenomena  it  will  conform 
strictly  with  the  reality.  He  knows  facts  in  their 
relations ;  his  knowledge  is  scientific.  There  are 
no  isolated  phenomena ;  all  things  are  related  to  all 
things.  This  universe  is  an  expression  of  thought, 
the  embodiment  of  ideas.  It  is  a  cosmos.  Order 
reigns  everywhere.  Science  is  but  the  partial  reve- 
lation of  the  nexus  that  binds  the  facts  — often  widely 
separated  in  time,  space,  and  surroundings  —  into  a 
harmonious  whole. 

The  ideal  schoolmaster,  while  guiding  his  pupils 
in  their  search  after  facts,  leads  them  to  a  compre- 
hension of  their  deep  significance,  and  instructs  them 
in  the  arranging  and  classifying  of  the  phenomena 
according  to  their  logical  relations.  The  true  student 
of  nature  is  he  who  studiously  and  reverently  thinks 
over  again  the  thoughts  of  the  Creator.  The  ideal 
schoolmaster's  knowledge  is  catholic  ;  it  is  not  cir- 
cumscribed by  any  narrow  boundaries.  "  No  pent-up 
Utica  "  is  his.  All  knowledge  is  related,  no  science 
stands  alone,  nor  is  any  one  science  supreme.  The 
sciences  of  theology,  jurisprudence,  politics,  language, 
mathematics,  biology,  physics,  chemistry,  history,  etc., 
are  correlated.  They  are  mutually  dependent  and 
mutually  interpretive.  The  man  who  knows  but  one 
thing  is  ignorant  of  that ;  the  master  of  only  one 
science  is  but  a  tyro  in  learning.  Besides,  all  sciences 
are  the  product  of  the  human  intellect,  the  spontane- 
ous creations  of  human  thought  in  its  painful  but 
triumphant  march  toward  the  conquest  of  the  secret 
of  the  universe.     They  are  in  their  entirety  the  fruits 


THE  IDEAL   SCHOOLMASTER. 


265 


of  human  culture,  and  they  are  in  turn  the  necessary 
instruments  for  the  training  of  the  human  mind. 

As  a  ripe  scholar  the  ideal  schoolmaster  stands 
as  an  interpreter  of  the  past.  His  is  the  key  that 
unlocks  the  vaults  where  all  her  treasures  are  guarded. 
Whatever  of  truth  has  been  spoken  by  the  great  and 
good  of  old,  whether  in  philosophy,  science,  or  litera- 
ture, is  his,  and  finds  in  him  a  friend  and  conservator. 

The  ideal  schoolmaster  is  a  philosopher,  a  lover 
of  wisdom,  a  man  who  seeks  truth  for  truth's  sake. 
Not  content  with  accumulating,  arranging,  labeling, 
and  classifying  facts,  nor  even  with  the  established 
conclusions  of  science,  he  pushes  his  inquiries  into 
the  realm  of  the  unformulated.  While  his  chief 
business  is  to  sail  by  the  chart  and  to  instruct  his 
pupils  in  the  well-established  code  of  navigation,  he 
does  not  hesitate  to  turn  now  and  then  into  unex- 
plored regions,  and  to  cast  his  plummet  into  depths 
as  yet  unfathomed.  Search  after  truth  is  its  own 
reward,  and,  even  though  unsuccessful,  lends  a  new 
value  to  treasures  already  gathered. 

But  pedagogy  itself  offers  a  wide  and  inviting  field 
for  the  thinker.  The  final  word  in  the  philosophy 
of  education  has  not  yet  been  spoken.  Teaching  as 
a  science  has  never  yet  been  fully  unfolded.  The 
question  has  even  been  raised  whether  there  be  a 
science  of  teaching.  Certain  it  is  that  there  are 
many  pedagogical  empirics  ;  that  traditional  methods 
of  teaching  are  largely  in  the  ascendency  ;  that  much 
of  our  so-called  education  is  not  only  one-sided  and 
defective,  but  positively  unphilosophical,  not  to  say 


266  STUDIES  I.Y  PEDAGOGY. 

irrational  and  injurious  ;  that  among  the  advocates 
of  the  new  education  there  is  lack  of  agreement  even 
on  fundamentals,  much  more  on  questions  of  detail. 
We  might  go  further  and  acknowledge  that  some  of 
those  who  are  reputed  to  be  masters  of  the  philosophy 
of  teaching  are  deficient  in  skill  in  applying  rational 
methods  to  the  perplexing  problems  in  the  daily  rou- 
tine of  school  teaching.  Shall  we  then  give  up  in 
despair  and  say  that  there  is  no  science  of  teaching? 
that  pedagogy  is  a  dream,  and  the  zealous  educational 
reformers  only  dreamers  'i  This  would  be  to  charge 
folly  upon  some  of  the  greatest  minds  of  the  past. 
For  Plato  and  Aristotle,  Ouintilian,  Comenius,  Locke, 
Milton,  Rousseau,  and  others  who  have  philosophized 
on  this  great  theme  have  been  recognized  as  able 
thinkers,  and  though  they  may  not  have  formulated 
a  science  that  will  satisfy  this  critical  age,  they  have 
unfolded  great  principles,  and  pointed  the  way  to  a 
true  philosophy  of  education.  Plato  laid  the  founda- 
tions of  this  philosophy  in  his  definition  of  a  good 
education  as  that  which  "  gives  to  the  body  and  to 
the  soul  all  the  beauty  and  perfection  of  which  they 
are  capable." 

Aristotle  anticipated  Froebel  when  he  advised  that 
even  the  games  of  little  children  not  yet  old  enough 
for  school  should  be  a  preparation  for  the  serious  work 
of  later  years. 

There  is  now  a  great  body  of  educational  doctrine 
accessible  to  every  earnest  student  of  pedagogy, 
invaluable  to  every  intelligent  teacher,  and  abso- 
lutely indispensable  to  him  who   aspires    after   the 


THE   IDEAL    SCHOOLMASTER.  267 

highest  excellence  in  the  noble  work  of  forming  and 
informing  the  human  soul.  The  ideal  schoolmaster 
is  a  student  of  pedagogy,  makes  himself  acquainted 
with  the  labors  of  those  who  have  sought  to  give 
a  reason  for  everything  done  in  education,  and  to  find 
a  rational  method  for  reaching  every  desired  result. 

He  is  not  an  imitator,  but  endeavors  to  acquaint 
himself  with  the  nature  of  the  complex  being  whose 
destiny  is  so  largely  committed  to  his  keeping,  labors 
long  to  form  for  himself  a  true  ideal  of  education  in 
its  broadest  acceptation,  and  having  carefully  con- 
sidered the  educational  value  of  the  different  knowl- 
edges, he  is  not  satisfied  until  he  has  worked  out  for 
himself  a  method  which,  while  conforming  to  the 
laws  of  mind  and  the  logical  relations  of  science, 
will  give  free  play  to  the  individuality  of  the  pupil 
and  the  personal  idiosyncrasies  of  the  teacher.  He 
is  a  philosopher,  but  philosophizes  in  order  that  he 
may  be  the  better  workman.  The  goal  of  his 
endeavor  is  action,  the  fruit  of  all  his  toil  is  higher 
results  in  the  formation  of  character.  His  philos- 
ophy reappears  not  so  much  in  books  as  in  lives. 
He  seeks  to  form,  not  a  school  of  philosophy,  but  a 
school  of  philosophers. 

Standing  on  the  high  vantage-ground  of  philoso- 
phy, looking  at  life  and  its  problems  through  a 
transparent  atmosphere,  he  beholds  what  escapes 
the  vision  of  less  fortunate  men.  He  is  a  veritable 
seer.  He  points  out  defects  in  reigning  ideals,  faults 
of  execution  in  their  embodiment,  suggesting  true 
ideals    and    better   methods,   and    thus    ushers    in    a 


268  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

nobler  future.  Like  some  Alpine  peak  whose  snow- 
clad  summit  glows  with  the  first  rays  of  the  dawn, 
and  heralds  the  day  while  the  valleys  are  still  envel- 
oped in  darkness,  the  ideal  schoolmaster  catches  the 
glow  of  the  coming  millennium  and  calls  to  action 
and  to  rejoicing. 

As  an  educator  one  of  his  chief  functions  is  to 
train  his  pupils  to  think.  "  I  imagine,"  said  Bishop 
Berkeley,  "  that  thinking  is  the  chief  desideratum  of 
the  present  age."  "  The  indisposition,  nay,  the 
angry  aversion,  to  think,"  says  Coleridge,  "is  the 
fact  that  forces  itself  on  ray  notice  afresh  every 
time  I  enter  the  society  of  persons  in  the  higher 
ranks."  Carlyle  declares  "that  a  thinking  man  is 
the  worst  enemy  the  prince  of  darkness  can  have." 
Dr.  Channing  affirms  that  "thought  is  the  funda- 
mental distinction  of  mind,  and  the  great  work  of 
life."  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  paid  this  high  compli- 
ment to  one  of  England's  greatest  men  :  "  What- 
ever merit  my  discourses  have,"  he  said,  "  must  be 
imputed  in  a  great  measure  to  the  education  which  I 
may  be  said  to  have  had  under  Dr.  Johnson.  I  do 
not  mean  to  say  that  he  contributed  a  single  senti- 
ment to  them,  but  he  qualified  my  mind  to  think 
justly.  No  man  had,  like  him,  the  faculty  of  teach- 
ing inferior  minds  the  art  of  thinking."  Locke  says: 
"  It  is  thinking  that  makes  what  we  read  ours." 

The  power  to  think,  to  observe,  analyze,  compare, 
judge,  abstract,  generalize,  classify,  infer,  and  carry 
on  complicated  processes  of  inductive,  deductive,  or 
analogical  reasoning,  such  as  is  required  of  men  in 


THE  IDEAL    SCHOOLMASTER.  269 

even  the  humbler  walks  of  life,  if  they  would  enjoy 
prosperity,  health,  and  happiness,  is  dependent 
largely  upon  the  habits  that  are  formed  in  the 
schoolroom  under  the  guidance  of  the  schoolmaster. 
If  he  be  not  a  thinker,  how  shall  he  train  others  to 
think  ? 

The  ideal  schoolmaster  is  an  artist.  The  materials 
upon  which  he  works  are  the  bodies  and  the  souls 
of  living  human  beings  ;  the  ideal  toward  which  he 
strives  is  their  full  development  ;  his  tools  are  the 
truths  of  science  ;  the  principles  that  guide  him  are 
the  laws  of  rational  life ;  the  special  methods  that 
he  follows  are  conditioned  upon  the  especial  end  in 
view,  the  peculiar  laws  of  the  faculty  or  power  to  be 
dealt  with,  and  the  nature  of  the  specific  truth  used 
as  an  instrument.  To  succeed  he  must  possess  the 
keenest  appreciation  of  the  beautiful,  since  nothing 
in  the  created  universe  is  more  beautiful  than  the 
human  soul  ;  he  must  have  the  clearest  conception 
of  the  completed  work  in  all  its  extent,  proportions, 
and  details,  for  nothing  is  so  complex  as  the  human 
organism  ;  he  needs  the  nicest  discrimination  between 
the  true  and  the  false,  the  good  and  the  bad,  the 
beautiful  and  the  deformed,  since  nowhere  else  is 
one  more  liable  to  err  than  in  the  training  of  the 
immortal  mind,  and  nowhere  else  is  error  more  fatal. 
He  requires  the  most  consummate  skill  because  the 
material  in  which  he  works  is  so  delicate,  the  effects 
of  his  labor  so  lasting  and  far-reaching  in  their  con- 
sequences, and  mistakes  so  remediless.  The  sculptor 
may  cast  aside  a  ruined  statue,  and  choosing  another 


270  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

block  of  marble  begin  his  work  anew.  But  the 
teacher's  blunders  are  wounds  that  never  heal,  scars 
that  are  never  effaced.  The  painter  may  erase  his 
work,  change  its  form,  color,  tone,  expression,  or 
throw  away  his  disfigured  canvas  and  begin  de  novo. 
Not  so  with  him  whose  canvas  is  the  human  soul. 
Every  stroke  is  ineffaceable;  the  false  coloring  is 
there  for  eternity. 

The  architect  is  not  limited  as  to  time  ;  he  may 
build  to-day  and  suspend  his  work  to-morrow.  Six 
centuries  elapsed  after  the  foundations  were  laid  at 
Cologne  before  the  final  touch  was  given  to  that 
wondrous  cathedral.  But  the  artist  who  seeks  the 
unfolding  of  the  human  soul  must  studiously  observe 
the  set  times  for  his  work.  An  opportunity  passed 
never  returns.  The  work  of  to-day  must  be  done 
to-day.  His  work  is  ruled  by  the  imperative  vow. 
Work  of  to-day  omitted  is  not  only  irreparably  lost, 
but  it  renders  the  full  work  of  to-morrow  impossible. 
A  stone  misplaced  to-day  is  misplaced  forever,  mar- 
ring the  symmetry  and  endangering  the  safety  of 
all  the  structure  to  be  built  upon  it.  The  musician 
striking  a  false  note  simply  produces  a  discord  that 
is  forgotten  or  unnoticed  in  the  great  volume  of 
harmony.  The  teacher  striking  a  false  note  mars 
the  instrument,  and  the  marring  is  irreparable. 

Teaching  is  an  art  that  requires  skill,  a  skill  that 
comes  by  practice  and  as  the  result  of  long  experi- 
ence. But  it  is  the  skill  of  an  artist,  not  of  an  arti- 
san, that  is  required.  Teaching  is  one  of  the  fine 
arts ;  rather,  it  is  the  finest  of  arts.    No  other  is  com- 


THE  IDEAL    SCHOOLMASTER.  27  I 

parable  with  it.  All  other  arts  deal  with  lifeless 
matter.  Teaching  has  to  do  with  the  living  soul. 
All  other  arts  are  perishable,  this  is  for  eternity. 
With  the  mechanical  arts  skill  is  the  highest  profi- 
ciency, and  automatic  precision  is  attainable.  The 
man  reaches  his  perfection  when  he  does  the  work 
of  a  machine,  and  machines  are  continually  displac- 
ing men.  But  in  teaching,  the  skill  needed  is  the 
cunning  of  the  mind  and  not  of  the  hand.  It  is  the 
delicate  poise  of  the  judgment,  the  keen  intuition 
into  motive,  the  remorselessness  of  reasoning,  the 
inflexibleness  of  will,  the  directness  of  aim,  the  turn 
of  a  sentence,  the  flash  of  an  eye,  the  detection  of 
falsehood,  and  the  uncovering  of  error,  the  judicious 
blending  of  praise  and  blame,  the  wisdom  of  help 
withheld  and  of  aid  proffered,  the  quick  discernment 
of  evil  tendencies,  and  tact  in  developing  any  latent 
power  of  that  wonderful  piece  of  mechanism  the 
human  body,  as  well  as  of  perception,  memory, 
imagination,  thought  and  feeling,  ability  to  arouse 
energy,  kindle  enthusiasm,  restrain  passion,  regulate 
desire,  direct  conscience,  and  enthrone  reason,  this  is 
the  skill  required  of  tJiis  artist,  the  ideal  schoolmaster. 
There  are  now  and  then  in  the  world's  history 
gifted  souls  who,  like  Leonardo  and  Michael  Angelo, 
combine  the  genius  of  architect,  painter,  and  sculp- 
tor. But  it  rarely  happens  that  men  excel  in  more 
than  one  line  of  artistic  work.  To  the  schoolmaster 
is  reserved  the  high  distinction  of  manifoldncss  in 
artistic  results.  Under  his  skilful  training  there 
awaken  to  consciousness  souls  of  the  most  various 


272 


STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 


endowments  —  one  to  achieve  distinction  as  an 
orator,  another  as  a  leader  of  armies,  another  as  a 
great  thinker,  a  poet,  or  a  sculptor,  still  another  as 
an  explorer,  opening  up  new  continents,  or  an 
inventor  turning  to  new  uses  the  forces  of  nature. 
His  is  the  rare  prerogative  of  recognizing  the  exist- 
ence of  these  possibilities,  calling  into  action  these 
slumbering  powers,  and  guiding  to  glorious  results 
these  godlike  energies. 

He  is  not  so  much  a  scholastic  artist,  however,  as 
an  artistic  schoolmaster.  His  love  of  order,  system, 
beauty  manifests  itself  in  everything  about  him  :  in 
the  attractiveness  of  the  school-grounds,  the  arrange- 
ment of  his  programme,  the  movements  of  classes, 
and  in  the  consummate  skill  with  which  government 
—  quiet,  unostentatious,  effective  —  is  maintained. 
To  him  school  discipline  is  not  an  ideal  to  be 
worshiped,  but  a  servant  whose  aid  is  most  valued 
when  least  obtrusive.  It  is  an  instrument  to  be 
kept  bright,  sharp,  and  ready  for  use  when  needed, 
but  out  of  sight  when  not  called  for. 

And,  finally,  the  ideal  schoolmaster  is  a  Christian  ; 
not  a  sectary  nor  a  bigot,  but  a  man  who,  without 
cant  or  hypocrisy,  reverences  God  and  recognizes  in 
Jesus  Christ  the  ruler  of  the  universe.  That  won- 
derful being  whom  we  call  man  has  a  religious  nature 
as  well  as  a  body  and  a  mind.  If  it  is  true,  as  Plato 
has  said,  that  a  good  education  is  the  full  develop- 
ment of  man  in  his  entirety,  then  it  must  include 
the  unfolding  of  that  which  is  the  crowning  excel- 
lency of  man's  nature,  his  religious  susceptibilities. 


THE  IDEAL   SCHOOLMASTER. 


273 


That  education  which  secures  to  him  merely  the 
training  of  his  body  makes  him  only  a  magnificent 
beast.  That  which  affords  him  an  intellectual  train- 
ing alone  may  make  of  him  a  Mephistopheles,  a 
sort  of  human  devil,  acute,  cunning,  capable,  but 
unprincipled  and  full  of  all  subtlety.  That  training 
which  would  secure  to  him  the  health  of  body,  vigor 
of  mind,  and  discipline  of  his  moral  powers,  would 
fit  him  for  citizenship,  but  if  it  left  him  untaught 
religiously,  it  would  make  of  him  only  a  cultivated 
heathen.  Man  is  not  a  congeries  of  disconnected 
natures.  He  is  a  unit.  Education  pertains  to  him 
in  his  entirety.  A  complete  education  is  a  symmet- 
rical education.  Man  without  a  religious  training- 
is  like  a  kingdom  without  a  king,  an  army  without 
a  general.  He  may  be  admirable  for  what  he  sug- 
gests, a  splendid  torso,  but  nothing  more. 

It  is  impossible  for  man  to  attain  to  complete 
manhood  without  the  unfolding  of  each  and  all  his 
powers.  Not  only  is  the  higher  conditioned  upon 
the  lower,  but  the  lower  nature  depends  upon  the 
higher  for  its  full  significance. 

The  ideal  schoolmaster  is  not  necessarily  a 
preacher,  and  he  does  not  push  his  religious  tenets 
to  the  forefront,  much  less  is  he  an  offensive  propa- 
gandist of  any  narrow  creed.  But  he  is  a  man  whose 
entire  being  is  adjusted  to  its  environment.  As  a 
member  of  society  he  is  in  sympathetic  relationship 
with  his  fellows.  As  a  creature  of  the  earth  he  under- 
stands nature's  laws,  loves  her  ways,  and  yields  obedi- 
ence to  her  requirements.     As  a  self-conscious  being 


274 


STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 


he  is  at  peace  with  himself  ;  and  as  a  spiritual  being 
he  is  at  one  with  his  Maker  and  Judge.  What  he  is 
nimself,  sincere,  honest,  truthful,  devout,  he — more 
by  example  than  by  word,  rather  by  the  alchemy  of 
godly  living  than  by  means  of  formal  instruction — - 
strives  to  render  his  pupils. 

Man  may  be  likened  to  the  magnificent  cathedral 
at  Milan.  His  physical  nature  is  the  deep-laid 
and  massive  foundation ;  his  intellectual  nature  the 
strong  walls  with  buttresses,  towers,  and  vaulted 
roof ;  his  aesthetic  nature  supplies  the  statues,  the 
noble  windows,  and  the  golden  treasures  in  the  sac- 
risty ;  his  moral  nature  may  typify  the  great  organs, 
the  choirs,  and  the  vestments  ;  while  his  religious 
susceptibilities  find  their  counterpart  in  the  voice  of 
prayer  and  songs  of  praise,  which,  rising  from  ten 
thousand  lips,  mingling  with  the  joyous  strains  of 
the  organ,  rise  and  swell  until  filling  all  the  vaulted 
arches  of  the  mighty  pile,  they  float  away  heavenward 
to  the  ear  of  Him  for  whose  worship  this  beautiful 
temple  was  built. 

Man  without  religion  is  a  temple  without  worship. 
An  irreligious  teacher  is  one  who  constructs  a  cathe- 
dral without  thought  or  care  as  to  what  use  shall  be 
made  of  it. 

The  ideal  schoolmaster,  then,  is  one  who  rejoices 
in  the  highest  prerogatives  of  manhood,  strength  of 
body  and  greatness  of  soul  ;  a  philanthropist  who 
thinks  nothing  foreign  to  himself  that  pertains  to 
man  ;  a  patriot  who  feels  a  personal  responsibility  in 
promoting  the  weal  of  the  Republic  ;  a  scholar  rever- 


THE   IDEAL    SCHOOLMASTER. 


275 


encing  the  past  and  sifting  from  its  history  all  that 
is  true  and  beautiful  and  good  ;  a  thinker  grappling 
independently  with  life's  problems,  pinning  his  faith 
to  no  man's  sleeve,  but  forming  for  himself  and  others 
credal  statements  ;  an  artist  who,  knowing  the  diffi- 
culty and  delicacy  of  his  self-appointed  task,  bends 
every  energy  to  attain  requisite  skill,  so  that  the 
trained  hand  and  the  educated  eye  may  work  in  uni- 
son for  the  accomplishment  of  its  high  endeavor  ;  a 
devout  man,  who  seeks  as  the  reward  of  his  life  not 
fame,  riches,  or  power,  but  the  consciousness  of  duty 
done  toward  his  pupils,  his  country,  his  race,  and  his 
God. 


XIX. 

THE  TRUE    FUNCTION   OF  A   NORMAL 
SCHOOL. 


Empirical  methodology  binds  the  teacher  down  and  makes  him 

a   pedant;     philosophical   methodology,   especially   if    enriched   with 

the   history  of  education,  gives   him  the  freedom  and  liberty  of  the 

spirit. 

S.  S.  Laurie. 

The  average  teacher  stops  growing  within  a  short  period  after 
achieving  fair  success  —  three  to  five  years  being  the  ordinary  limit 
fixed.  The  teacher  educated  at  a  normal  school  is  more  likely  to 
continue  growing  throughout  the  entire  career. 

William  T.  Harris. 


There  is  in  the  teacher's  profession  the  same  difference  which  is 
observable  in  all  other  human  employments  between  the  skilled  and 
the  unskilled  practitioner,  and  that  difference  depends,  in  a  large 
measure,  on  a  knowledge  of  the  best  rules  and  methods  which  have  to 
be  used  and  the  principles  which  underlie  and  justify  these  rules. 

J.  G.  Fitch. 

That  every  normal   school   should    have   a   model  and   training 

school  has  long  since  been  established  by  law  in  Germany,  and  is  no 

longer   a  question  of  debate.     As   the   late  Director  Kehr  said :  "  A 

normal  school  without  a  training   school  would  be  like  a  swimming 

school  without  water." 

Charles  De  Garmo. 


XIX. 

THE   TRUE    FUNCTION    OF   A   NORMAL 
SCH00L.1 

Many  of  the  questions  now  stirring  the  educational  world  must  b? 
worked  through  to  the  end  in  the  normal  school. 

—  Thomas  B.  Stockwell. 

In- this  paper  the  term  "normal  school"  is  used 
as  a  generic  term,  applicable  to  that  class  of  schools 
in  America  in  which  teachers  are  trained.  The 
specific  work  of  any  particular  school  must  be 
determined  by  any  peculiar  circumstances  that  con- 
dition its  activities.  The  discussion  undertaken  in 
this  case  is  limited  to  American  schools. 

The  plan  of  the  essay  is  as  follows  :  An  intro- 
ductory sketch  is  given  of  the  tout  ensemble  of 
educational  agencies  in  order  to  bring  into  bold 
relief  the  work  of  the  school-teacher. 

Next,  with  a  view  of  showing  the  function  of  the 
normal  school,  an  outline  of  study  is  given,  a  plan 
of  a  training-school  sketched,  the  special  function  of 
the  school  in  relation  to  the  profession  is  set  forth, 
and  some  considerations  are  offered  against  the  pre- 
vailing custom  of  doing  so  much  academic  work. 

Owing  to  the  peculiar  structure  of  our  government 
we  have  no  national  system  of  education,  such  as 
obtains  in  Prussia.     Each  State  has  its  own  system, 

1  Prize  Essay.     Award  of  the  American  Institute  of  Instruction,  1885. 
279 


28o  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

and  these  are  by  no  means  alike.  It  is  consequently 
impossible  to  speak  of  the  American  system  of  edu- 
cation except  by  way  of  accommodation,  and  then 
only  in  general  terras. 

GENERAL    SURVEY. 

The  active  agencies  at  work  to  mold  our  national 
life  by  the  instrumentality  of  teaching,  and  which  are 
immediately  affected  by  the  normal  school,  are  the 
following  :  — 

1.  The  family.  The  child's  first  teacher  is  the 
mother ;  his  first  school,  the  nursery.  The  atmos- 
phere of  the  home  life  is  a  most  potent  factor  in 
molding  the  child's  character.  All  of  our  youth 
must  graduate  from  the  home  into  the  school,  where 
their  career  will  be  largely  determined  by  the  influ- 
ence of  the  home. 

2.  The  idea  now  widely  obtains  that  it  is  necessary 
for  every  State  to  provide  the  rudiments  of  education 
for  the  whole  body  of  children  of  school  age.  The 
Republic,  because  it  is  a  republic,  —  a  government 
of  the  people  and  by  the  people,  —  must,  as  a  matter 
of  self-preservation,  see  to  it  that  the  essentials  of 
good  citizenship,  intelligence,  and  civic  virtue  shall 
be  universally  diffused.  To  secure  this  the  State 
establishes  and  maintains  at  public  expense  free 
schools,  open  to  all.  These  schools  comprise  the 
district  (chiefly  ungraded),  the  primary,  and  the 
grammar  schools.  There  are  also  many  private 
schools  of  corresponding  grades. 


THE  NORMAL   SCHOOL.  28  I 

The  two  specific  ends  aimed  at  in  the  common 
school  should  be  the  awakening  of  the  faculties  and 
the  impartation  of  that  knowledge  that  will  be  of 
the  most  practical  utility.  The  pupils  are  to  be 
trained  for  freedom  and  for  usefulness.  Every  child 
is  to  become  a  producer,  and  not  a  pauper ;  a  law- 
abiding  citizen,  and  not  a  criminal  ;  a  respectable 
member  of  society,  and  not  a  tramp  ;  an  intelligent 
voter,  and  not  a  tool  for  demagogues  ;  a  patriot,  and 
not  a  partisan. 

There  is  a  growing  sentiment  that  the  work  of  the 
common  school  should  be  made  in  the  highest  degree 
practical.  It  does  not  and  can  not  impart  a  liberal 
education.  It  aims  at  immediate  practical  results, 
rather  than  at  culture.  The  mass  of  those  who 
receive  its  benefits  go  no  further  in  their  studies,  but 
enter  at  once  upon  life's  duties,  which  means  in  too 
many  cases  a  mere  struggle  for  existence.  There 
are  many  advocates  of  some  sort  of  industrial  train- 
ing in  connection  with  the  public  schools,  to  take 
the  place,  in  some  degree  at  least,  of  the  old  system 
of  apprenticeship,  which  will  give  to  the  laboring 
classes  something  of  skill  and  so  relieve  their  toil 
and  break  their  bondage.  Competition,  which  natu- 
rally increases  with  the  growth  of  the  population  ; 
division  of  labor  resulting  from  the  growing  com- 
plexity of  our  civilization  and  the  tyranny  of  trades 
unions  dominated  largely  by  foreigners,  many  of 
whom  have  had  a  technical  education  abroad, 
would  seem  to  necessitate  some  practical  enlarge- 
ment or  addition  to  our  present  educational  agencies 
for  the  masses. 


252  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

It  should  not  be  forgotten,  however,  that  the 
higher  grades  of  schools,  soon  to  be  mentioned, 
are  largely  recruited  from  the  district  and  grammar 
schools.  The  seeds  of  culture  sown  there  are  to 
reach  their  maturity  in  the  university.  The  door  of 
every  country  schoolhouse  should  open  towards  the 
college. 

The  work  of  the  common  school  is  characterized 
by  its  elementary  nature,  its  thoroughness  and  prac- 
ticalness. The  administration  of  a  firm  and  wise 
discipline,  the  inculcation  of  good  principles,  the 
formation  of  correct  habits,  the  awakening  of  a 
lofty  ideal  of  life  and  duty,  and  the  development 
of  a  manly  character,  as  well  as  the  awakening  of 
mind  and  the  imparting  of  knowledge,  enter  into 
the  responsible  duties  of  the  common-school  teacher. 
The  far-reaching  results  that  must  flow  from  the 
common-school  work  lend  to  it  great  dignity  and 
importance.  The  qualities  requisite  in  a  common- 
school  teacher  are  good  natural  endowments,  an 
established  character,  a  mastery  of  the  subjects  to 
be  taught,  skill   in   governing,  aptness   in   teaching. 

3.  Next  above  the  schools  just  described  are  a 
group  of  those  that  may  be  called  secondary.  They 
are  the  high  schools,  academies,  seminaries,  and  pri- 
vate fitting-schools.  Receiving  its  pupils  from  the 
grammar  schools,  the  high  school  attempts  to  do  a 
threefold  work.  First,  to  complete  the  task  of  fitting 
the  student  for  the  duties  of  life  by  giving  him 
an  acquaintance  with  the  elements  of  the  natural 
sciences,  especially  in  their  relation  to  the  arts  and 


THE  NORMAL   SCHOOL.  283 

trades.  Its  mathematical  drill  extends  to  algebra, 
geometry,  and  surveying.  Second,  it  seeks  to  impart 
something  of  liberality  to  the  culture  by  giving  its 
students  a  knowledge  of  rhetoric,  literature, 
history,  English  composition,  etc.  And  third,  it 
seeks  to  give  to  those  who  desire  to  pursue  a 
college  course  a  preparation  that  will  fit  them  to 
do  so  with  ease  and  profit. 

There  are  several  open  questions  in  relation  to 
the  high  school ;  for  example,  How  can  the  course 
be  modified  so  as  to  meet  the  varying  wants  of  the 
pupils }  In  some  cases  the  high  school  already 
embraces  at  least  three  so-called  departments :  a 
boys'  English  department,  a  girls'  English  depart- 
ment, and  a  classical  department.  Should  the  indus- 
trial idea  prevail  it  may  be  forced  to  still  further 
differentiate  its  work.  Another  question  is  in  regard 
to  the  enlargement  of  the  course,  so  as  to  enable 
those  who  cannot  pursue  a  college  course  to  receive 
in  the  high  school  as  near  an  equivalent  therefor 
as  possible.  Still  another  of  great  moment  is  the 
adjustment  of  the  high-school  work  to  that  of  the 
college. 

It  is  very  evident  that  the  requirements  for  those 
competent  to  fill  chairs  in  these  schools  must  increase 
more  and  more.  Broader  scholarship,  riper  experi- 
ence, and  greater  weight  of  character  must  be  com- 
bined with  practical  skill  and  knowledge  of  life. 

4.  The  colleges  constitute  a  third  grade  of  schools. 
These  embrace  a  wide  range  of  diverse  institutions, 
some  founded  and  maintained  by  the  State,  others 


284  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

established  by  private  munificence.  Many  of  them 
are  scarcely  more  than  high  schools  or  academies ; 
others  —  like  Johns  Hopkins  —  are  universities. 

The  most  marked  feature  in  the  present  status  of 
the  older  and  stronger  colleges  is  their  development 
into  universities,  giving  greater  liberty  of  choice  and 
larger  range  of  studies.  The  methods  of  teaching 
are  correspondingly  changing.  Original  research, 
lecturing,  and  laboratory  work  are  increasingly 
important. 

5.  Last  of  all,  and  completing  the  chain,  are  the 
various  technical  schools,  each  designed  to  train 
students  to  excel  in  some  chosen  calling  or  profes- 
sion. The  law,  medical,  and  theological  schools,  the 
military  and  naval  academies,  the  art  schools  and 
schools  of  technology,  aim  to  give  a  minimum  of 
general  culture  and  a  maximum  of  special  instruc- 
tion. The  special  fitness  of  a  teacher  for  these 
schools  is  his  grasp  of  the  science  and  mastery  of 
the  technique  or  art  of  his  calling. 

CONCLUSIONS  FROM  ABOVE  SURVEY. 

The  most  obvious  suggestions  arising  from  this 
hasty  survey  of  our  educational  agencies  are  the 
following  :  — 

1.  Education  is  a  very  complex  process  and  involves 
the  cooperation  of  very  diverse  agencies. 

2.  All  these  agencies  —  home,  school,  college, 
university  —  are  parts  of  a  great  scheme,  all  work- 
ing toward  a  common  end,  —  to  fit  men  and  women 


THE  NORMAL   SCHOOL.  285 

for  life  in  general  and  the  individual  for  his  particu- 
lar sphere.  They  constitute  a  solidarity,  and  what 
affects  one  affects  all.  They  act  and  react  upon 
each  other. 

3.  There  is  a  vast  aggregate  (say  three  hundred 
thousand)  of  men  and  women  who  may  be  classed 
as  public  teachers  —  those  who  give  their  time  and 
energies  wholly  or  chiefly  to  this  work.  With  the 
enormous  growth  of  our  population  this  number  is 
steadily  increasing. 

4.  There  is  a  rapid  increase  in  the  proportion  of 
female  teachers.  In  a  prominent  western  city  (small) 
almost  every  teacher  is  a  woman.  The  great  mass 
of  normal-school  pupils  are  women.  In  thousands 
of  cases  the  only  school  training  ever  received  is  from 
women,  and  very  frequently  they  themselves  have 
never  been  taught  by  men. 

5.  The  most  momentous  question  which  now  con- 
fronts the  American  people  is  that  of  public  educa- 
tion. All  other  considerations  are  subordinate  to 
this.  The  nation  is  committing  its  very  existence, 
as  well  as  its  highest  weal,  into  the  hands  of  its 
school-teachers.  These  considerations  lead  naturally 
to  the  discussion  of  the  question  of  the  true  function 
of  the  normal  school. 

The  vast  and  increasing  number  of  persons  de- 
manded as  teachers  in  our  public  and  private  schools, 
and  the  wide  influence  exerted  by  them,  call  for 
careful  consideration  of  the  means  for  securing 
those  best  qualified  for  teaching.  In  the  opinion 
of  very  many  the  normal  school  is  th(?  best  agency 


286  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

yet  devised  for  fitting  teachers  for  their  especial 
work.  What,  then,  is  the  true  function  of  the 
normal  school  ?  The  general  reply  is  at  hand : 
the  normal  is  a  professional  school  whose  distinc- 
tive work  is  to  prepare  men  and  women  to  teach. 

COURSE  OF  PROFESSIONAL  STUDY. 

But  the  question  demands  a  more  specific  answer, 
which  will  be  furnished  in  part  by  outlining  a  course 
of  study,  which,  subject  to  modifications,  would  best 
meet  the  wants  of  candidates  for  the  profession  of 
teaching. 

AntJiropology.  The  teacher's  business  is  to  care 
for,  develop,  train,  and  instruct  children  and  youth. 
That  which  underlies  all  his  work  and  renders  any 
intelligent  performance  of  his  duties  possible  is  a 
knowledge  of  the  child-nature. 

I.  He  needs  to  know  physiology.  Education  neces- 
sarily has  to  do  largely  with  the  body.  Not  only  is 
the  ideal  goal,  sana  mens  in  sano  corporc,  but  all  the 
processes  of  mental  and  moral  culture  are  dependent 
upon  physical  conditions.  The  teacher  needs  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  the  structure  of  the  body 
and  of  the  laws  of  hygiene.  The  questions  of  venti- 
lation, heat,  exercise,  overwork,  recreation,  are  so 
vital  that  nothing  save  careful,  special  investigation 
of  them  in  their  direct  practical  relation  to  school 
teaching  can  insure  even  an  ordinary  regard  for  the 
pupils'  physical  well-being. 

If  any  other  considerations  are  needed  to  enforce 


^- 


THE   NORMAL    SCHOOL.  28/ 

this  requirement  they  may  bo  found  in  the  fact  that 
many  of  the  simplest  laws  of  hygiene  arc  constantly 
violated  in  schools  of  all  grades,  and  that  school  life, 
which  should  result  in  physical  robustness,  produces 
multitudes  of  physical  wrecks. 

2.  The  teacher  needs  to  know  psychology.  The 
watchmaker  must  know  the  internal  structure  of  the 
watch  ;  the  engineer,  that  of  the  engine.  So  the 
teacher  needs  to  be  especially  versed  in  the  mental 
constitution.  Teaching,  whether  regarded  as  a  pro- 
cess of  drawing  out  the  intellectual  powers  or  as 
imparting  knowledge,  is  conditioned  upon  the  laws 
of  mental  growth  and  assimilation.  No  teaching 
can  be  successful  that  does  not  comply  with  these 
laws.  There  may  be  good  teachers  who  have  never 
made  a  formal  study  of  psychology  apart  from  their 
observations  upon  their  scholars  and  their  unsyste- 
matic reflections  upon  the  facts  observed.  A  careful 
study  of  the  science  of  the  mind  before  entering 
upon  the  work  would,  however,  have  greatly  facili- 
tated it,  saved  them  from  mistakes,  and  spared  their 
pupils  the  inconvenience,  and  oftentimes  injury,  of 
being  experimented  upon.  The  human  mind  has  a 
very  complex  organization,  and  the  laws  of  its  develop- 
ment can  be  understood  only  by  careful  study.  The 
special  fitness  of  particular  studies  for  the  training 
of  mental  powers  is  apparent  only  by  surveying  the 
powers  to  be  developed  in  close  connection  with  the 
studies  designed  to  develop  them. 

The  remedy  for  the  one-sidedness  of  education, 
resulting  from  the  too  common  method  of  cramming 


288  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

the  memory,  can  only  be  found  by  such  a  study  of 
the  human  mind  as  will  bring  into  bold  relief  the 
various  powers  —  perception,  memory,  imagination, 
the  thinking  and  reasoning  faculties  in  their  mutual 
relations. 

3.  The  course  should  include  a  study  of  the  ethical 
nature.  The  human  being  is  capable  of  the  most 
varied  affections,  appetites,  desires,  emotions,  etc. 
He  has  a  conscience  and  a  will.  His  happiness  and 
his  usefulness  depend  upon  the  proper  unfolding  of 
these  powers.  He  is  to  grow  up,  not  to  a  life  of 
selfish  indulgence,  but  to  be  a  member  of  a  com- 
munity, considerate  of  the  rights  of  others.  The 
teacher  who  would  train  this  being  for  the  proper 
performance  of  all  his  social  duties  and  the  enjoy- 
ment of  all  his  privileges,  must  make  a  careful  study 
of  the  laws  of  his  moral  growth,  strive  to  form 
correct  habits,  and  to  unfold  a  high  order  of  moral 
character. 

His  study  of  ethics  may  include  also  an  investiga- 
tion into  that  body  of  accepted  moral  truth  recognized 
by  all  as  essential  to  the  regulation  of  mutual  inter- 
course in  society. 

The  teacher  is  to  influence  his  pupils  chiefly  by 
moral  power,  the  plying  of  right  motives.  He  will 
be  greatly  aided  in  this  by  a  study  of  the  child's  heart 
and  an  examination  of  the  fundamental  principles  of 
right  government. 

4.  This  group  of  studies  pertaining  to  man  is  not 
complete  without  logic.  This  is  essentially  psycho- 
logical.     The  laws  of    right   thinking  are  quite  as 


THE  NORMAL   SCHOOL.  289 

important  as  the  laws  of  right  feehng.  The  highest 
outcome  of  intellectual  education  on  its  practical  side 
is  the  power  to  think  profoundly  and  with  ease  and 
pleasure.  To  analyze,  compare,  reason,  form  just 
judgments,  enter  largely  into  the  practical  duties 
of  life.  There  may  be  correct  thinking  without  the 
study  of  formal  logic,  just  as  there  may  be  correct 
speaking  without  formal  grammar,  and  elegant  expres- 
sion without  rhetoric.  Bat  grammar  and  rhetoric  are 
acknowledged  to  be  in  a  high  degree  helpful,  when 
properly  studied,  to  a  correct  and  elegant  use  of  the 
mother-tongue.  So  logic,  both  as  a  science  and  an 
art,  may  be  so  taught  as  to  greatly  aid  in  securing 
skill  in  detecting  fallacy  and  error,  in  investigating 
truth,  and  in  properly  arranging  thoughts  for  the 
greatest  effectiveness. 

A  special  reason  for  teaching  logic  in  normal 
schools  is  its  relation  to  methods.  The  proper  divi- 
sion, arrangement,  classification,  and  presentation  of 
a  subject  are  simply  so  many  forms  of  applied  logic. 
The  suitable  teaching  of  every  subject,  the  definitions 
in  geography,  the  inductions  in  natural  science,  deduc- 
tions in  geometry,  analyses  of  sentences  in  grammar, 
examination  of  literature,  construction  of  essays,  all 
depend  upon  a  practical  knowledge  of  correct  thinking, 
or  logic. 

These  anthropological  studies  that  have  been  named 
as  the  basis  of  a  normal-school  curriculum  might  be 
supplemented  in  advanced  courses  by  inquiries  into 
ethnology  and  sociology,  and  whatever  else  would 
throw  light  upon  man  as  an  educable  being.     These 


2  90  S  TUDIES  IN  FED  A  GOGY. 

studies  pertaining  to  man  are  pursued  in  all  colleges 
and  many  high  schools.  But  instruction  in  them 
in  the  normal  school  should  be  thorough,  comprehen- 
sive, and  with  constant  reference  to  their  pedagogical 
bearing. 

If  those  who  enter  the  normal  school  could  be 
thoroughly  well  informed  in  the  facts  of  physiology, 
psychology,  ethics,  and  logic,  as  a  condition  of 
entrance,  it  would  be  all  the  better  for  them ;  the 
time  could  be  spent  in  exhibiting  the  significance 
and  use  of  those  facts  in  the  work  of  education. 

PEDAGOGY. 

This  group  of  studies  should  be  followed  by 
another,  which  may  be  termed  pedagogical.  This 
consists  of  :  — 

I.  An  inquiry  into  the  philosophy  of  education. 
Education,  considered  as  development,  is  simply 
evolution,  or  an  unfolding  to  maturity  of  activity 
and  strength  of  all  the  powers  of  the  human  being. 
It  differs  from  evolution  in  matter,  as  in  the  tree  or 
animal,  in  this  :  in  man  it  is  the  result  of  conscious 
effort  on  the  part  of  the  individual.  All  psychologi- 
cal growth  is  conditioned  upon  exercise.  All  educa- 
tion, therefore,  must  be  self-education.  It  is  evolu- 
tion from  within.  It  is  a  process  self-originated,  self- 
directed,  and  terminates  in  self.  The  function  of  the 
teacher  is  chiefly  that  of  supplying  the  external  con- 
ditions for  the  maintenance  of  the  native  energies, 
the  protection  of  them  from  unhealthy  employment 


THE  NORMAL   SCHOOL.  29 1 

and  dissipation,  and  the  furnishing  of  the  opportuni- 
ties for  their  exercise. 

The  child's  individuality  and  freedom  should  be 
sacredly  respected.  All  educational  processes  are 
to  be  based  on  a  careful  study  not  only  of  child- 
nature  in  general,  but  also  of  the  idiosyncrasies  of 
the  individual  pupil.  Education  seeks  primarily  the 
formation  of  right  habits,  physical,  mental,  and 
moral.  Its  purpose  is  to  put  the  child  en  rapport 
with  his  environment,  nature,  society,  God.  Every 
child  is  a  man  in  miniature,  a  possible  type  of  the 
race,  capable,  under  education  of  attaining  an  exalted 
degree  of  capacity  for  enjoyment  and  power  of  per- 
formance. The  ideal  good  in  education  is  to  put 
within  the  range  of  every  individual,  without  regard 
to  sex  or  social  status,  the  attainment  of  the  noblest 
possibilities.  It  is  to  enable  each  one  to  make  the 
most  of  himself  for  time  and  for  eternity. 

The  philosophy  of  education  necessarily  embraces 
such  questions  as  physical  training,  college  sports, 
and  school  amusements,  the  co-education  of  the  sexes, 
industrial  education,  courses  of  study,  and  all  other 
matters  that  pertain  to  the  broad  subject  of  the 
completest  unfolding  of  man  in  his  entirety,  and  his 
fullest  equipment  for  duty  and  privilege  here  and 
hereafter.  It  sweeps  the  whole  field  of  educational 
endeavor,  public  and  private,  in  all  its  grades  and 
stages ;  comprehends  all  its  aims,  means,  motives, 
and  agencies,  and  seeks  to  secure  the  highest  results 
for  all  concerned. 

II.     A  history  of  education.     Much  is  to  be  learned 


292  STUDIES  lA    PEDAGOGY. 

as  to  both  the  philosophy  of  education  and  methods 
of  teaching  by  studying  the  systems  of  education 
that  have  been  formulated,  the  theories  that  have 
been  promulgated,  and  the  methods  recommended 
and  followed  by  those  who  have  wrought  on  this 
great  question  in  past  ages.  Nothing,  perhaps,  so 
liberalizes  the  mind  of  the  teacher  as  the  intelligent 
study  of  the  words  and  ways  of  such  men  as  Locke, 
Ascham,  Rousseau,  Comenius,  Pestalozzi,  Froebel,  and 
Spencer. 

III.  Didactics,  or' the  principles  of  training.  There 
has  come  to  be  recognized  a  very  considerable  body 
of  principles,  or  first  truths,  regulative  in  their  char- 
acter, and  very  suggestive  and  helpful  to  the  young 
pedagogue.  To  analyze  these,  discuss  them,  trace 
them  in  their  origin,  and  to  follow  them  to  their 
practical  issue,  are  valuable  exercises.  Some  of 
these  aphorisms  may  be  instanced:  — 

1.  Exercise  is  the  fundamental  law  of  growth. 

2.  Each  faculty  must  be  exercised  in  accordance 
with  its  own  laws  of  unfolding. 

3.  The  chief  aim  of  all  primary  teaching  is  mental 
development. 

4.  Nothing  should  be  done  for  a  child  that  he  can 
be  led  to  do  for  himself. 

5.  Interest  on  the  part  of  the  pupil  is  the  sine  qua 
non  of  all  satisfactory  progress. 

6.  There  is  a  proper  order  for  the  development  of 
the  faculties  which  in  general  statement  is,  first,  the 
perceptive  faculties,  then  the  memory,  power  of  lan- 
guage, imagination,  and  last  of  all,  the  reasoning 
powers. 


THE  NORMAL    SCHOOL.  293 

7.  The  studies  to  be  taught  should  be  chosen  with 
reference  to  especial  ends, 

8.  They  should  be  adapted  to  the  age  and  attain- 
ments of  the  pupil. 

9.  In  the  early  stages  of  a  liberal  education  the 
studies  are  chiefly  disciplinary,  and  teachers  should 
so  use  them.  All  should  be  so  correlated,  however, 
that  one  will  lead  naturally  to  another,  and  together 
they  should  form  a  system. 

10.  In  the  later  stages  of  education,  whether  long 
or  short,  some  reference  should  be  had  in  selecting 
the  studies  to  be  pursued  to  the  future  occupation  of 
the  student. 

IV.  Methodology.  Didactics  has  to  do  with  training 
or  development,  while  methodology  investigates  the 
laws  of  instruction,  or  impartation  of  knowledge. 
Didactics  discusses  the  laws  of  growth  ;  methodology, 
the  laws  of  unfolding  truth.  Didactics  has  to  do 
with  mind ;  methodology,  with  matter.  Didactics 
is  concerned  with  drawing  out ;  methodology,  with 
putting  in.  They  often  run  parallel,  and  are  some- 
times confounded,  yet  they  are  really  distinct  in  their 
province  of  inquiry,  separate  in  thought,  and  should 
be  discussed  apart.  Methodology  includes  a  discus- 
sion of  isolated  principles,  or  fundamental  truths,  and 
also  of  the  systems  founded  upon  them.  Among 
the  subjects  treated  under  methodology  may  be  men- 
tioned :  — 

I.  The  kindergarten.  This  is  really  a  system  or 
method  devised  by  Froebel  to  initiate  in  the  mother's' 
arms,  and  in  the  nursery,  the  work  of  child  culture. 


2  94 


STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 


2.  Objective  teaching.  The  first  stages  of  all 
education  should  be  experimental.  When  the  child 
has  acquired  the  power  of  gaining  knowledge  readily 
and  accurately  without  helps,  then  objects  hinder 
instead  of  aid. 

3.  The  topical  method  of  presentation  is  to  be 
followed  as  soon  as  the  attainments  of  the  pupil 
will  justify  it. 

4.  The  art  of  questioning  constitutes  a  very  im- 
portant element  in  all  methods  of  instruction  where 
recitation  is  used. 

5.  Analysis  and  synthesis,  induction  and  deduction, 
the  study  of  words  and  the  study  of  things,  thought 
and  expression,  knowing  and  doing,  memory  and  rea- 
son, should  as  far  as  possible  go  hand  in  hand.  They 
should  never  be  violently  severed. 

6.  The  text  (or  reference)  book  and  oral  teaching 
should  supplement  each  other. 

7.  For  the  higher  grades  of  instruction  the  lecture 
system  has  special  advantages. 

8.  Laboratories,  apparatus,  and  illustrative  mu- 
seums are  helpful  in  all  stages  of  instruction. 

9.  The  pupil  is  to  be  incited  at  every  stage  of  his 
progress  to  independent  research,  observation,  experi- 
ment, verification,  thought,  etc. 

10.  In  general,  we  are  to  proceed  from  the  concrete 
to  the  abstract,  simple  to  complex,  the  part  to  the 
whole,  and  vice  versa,  and  from  known  to  unknown. 

V.  MetJiods.  After  this  general  survey  of  method- 
ology, or  rather  in  connection  with  it,  instruction 
should  be  given  in  the  method  of  teaching  special 


THE  NORMAL   SCHOOL.  295 

subjects,  such  as  form,  color,  size,  weight,  number, 
place,  time,  and  language,  to  young  children  :  read- 
ing, writing,  spelling,  drawing,  plants  and  animals,  to 
those  older :  arithmetic,  grammar,  rhetoric,  geogra- 
phy, literature,  history,  the  natural  sciences,  etc.,  to 
advanced  pupils. 

While  it  may  be  that  there  is  no  one  method  to  be 
followed  in  teaching  any  subject,  every  subject  is  best 
taught  by  a  method,  and  he  is  most  likely  to  find  the 
best  method  who  diligently  and  intelligently  seeks 
for  it. 

VI.  School  economy.  The  student  who  has  a  clear 
idea  of  the  nature  of  the  being  to  be  educated,  and 
the  character  and  method  of  the  education,  is  pre- 
pared to  consider  the  organization  of  the  school,  the 
making  of  a  programme,  the  keeping  of  records,  the 
administration  of  discipline,  the  legal  rights  and 
limitations  of  the  teacher.  For  an  advanced  grade 
of  students  it  would  be  proper  to  discuss  the  build- 
ing and  furnishing  of  schoolhouses;  heating,  lighting, 
and  ventilating  ;  duties  of  school  officers,  including 
superintendents  ;  the  grading  of  schools,  school  sys- 
tems, etc.  In  short,  whatever  pertains  to  the  admin- 
istration of  our  complex  school  system  would  furnish 
suitable  topics  for  this  course. 

Before  leaving  this  branch  of  my  theme  let  me 
say  that  it  would  not  be  necessary,  or  even  desirable, 
perhaps,  that  each  class  should  pursue  this  entire 
course.  It  would  be  sufficient  if  the  normal  schools 
could  give  such  instructions  in  the  great  fundamentals 
as  would  set  students  thinking,  and  so  teach  them 


296  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

that  in  all  these  questions  they  would  be  likely  to 
reach  right  conclusions.  Thus  their  influence  could 
not  fail  to  be  profound,  far-reaching,  and  healthful. 
It  would  eventually  pervade  the  entire  teaching  force 
of  the  country. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  great  stress  is  laid  upon 
the  thought  that  one  great  function  of  the  normal 
school  is  to  formulate  a  body  of  educational  doctrine. 
Perhaps  nowhere  more  than  in  teaching  is  seen  the 
power  of  truth.  Any  reforms  in  educational  ideas  or 
methods  become  effective  only  when  they  become 
controlling  forces  in  the  teachers.  At  no  time  are 
teachers  so  impressible,  so  open  to  receive  truth, 
as  during  that  formative  period  of  preparation  when 
they  give  themselves  up  to  be  taught.  When  rightly 
taught  as  above  they  will  be  aggressive,  independent, 
and  wisely  conservative. 

It  is  worthy  of  especial  consideration  that  the 
problem  of  education,  while  old  and  involving  inva- 
riable elements,  is  essentially  a  new  problem,  to  be 
worked  out  by  each  new  generation  in  its  own  way. 
On  its  practical  side  education  is  the  training  of  the 
individual  for  citizenship ;  that  is,  for  the  successful 
discharge  of  the  particular  duties  of  his  special  sta- 
tion in  life.  But  a  man's  duties  are  determined  by 
his  environment  ;  that  is,  by  the  demands  of  the  ever- 
changing  civilization  amidst  whose  influences  he  lives 
and  labors. 

Educational  doctrine  must  embrace  not  only  the 
unchangeable  element  of  man's  nature,  but  also  the 
changeable  elements  of  the  life  of  which  he  makes  a 


THE   NORMAL    SCHOOl..  297 

part ;  and  normal  schools  must  recognize  these  truths 
in  their  teaching. 

PRACTICE    SCHOOLS. 

Along  with  this  professional  instruction  the  work 
of  next  highest  importance  to  be  done  by  the  normal 
school  is  to  train  its  pupils  in  the  actual  work  of 
teaching.  There  is  a  science  of  teaching,  and  any 
person  will  be  a  better  teacher  if,  before  entering 
upon  his  work,  he  masters  at  least  the  rudiments  of 
that  science.  The  more  familiar  he  is  with  these 
elements,  the  more  easily  can  he  apply  them  in  his 
work  in  the  schoolroom. 

But  teaching  is  no  less  an  art  in  which  the  highest 
success  is  attainable  only  through  practice.  Experi- 
ence is  the  verifying  process  that  must  make  evident 
to  him  the  truth  of  his  philosophy.  Under  a  wise 
system  of  teaching  under  criticism  pupils  may  very 
greatly  expedite  the  matter  of  acquiring  both  experi- 
ence and  skill.  A  student  is  better  prepared  for  the 
independent  work  of  the  schoolroom  by  even  a  few 
weeks'  preliminary  handling  of  classes.  As  difficul- 
ties and  perplexities  occur  they  are  referred  to  the 
master  for  solution,  mistakes  are  corrected,  and  excel- 
lences are  acknowledged  and  commended.  By  this 
means  it  should  be  noted  that  the  schools  would  not 
only  be  saved  in  a  measure  from  the  blunders  of  inex- 
perienced teachers,  but,  what  is  a  matter  of  the  high- 
est importance,  they  would  be  permanently  spared 
the  infliction  of  those  who  by  this  testing  process 
are    found    wanting    in    the    essential    elements    of 


298  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

success  as  teachers,  and  are  refused  certificates,  and 
advised  to  seek  other  calHngs. 

How  the  normal  school  shall  supply  the  need  of 
training,  and  so  fulfil  this  important  function,  is  a 
mooted  question.  Several  methods  are  followed. 
One  is  to  allow  the  undergraduates,  or  pupil-teachers, 
to  teach  under  the  eye  of  a  head  teacher,  who  has 
the  chief  responsibility  for  the  discipline  and  pro- 
gress of  the  class.  Another  is  to  assign  pupil- 
teachers  to  particular  classes  for  definite  periods  of 
say  ten  weeks,  and  hold  them  responsible  for  arrang- 
ing the  work,  instructing  the  classes,  and  maintaining 
discipline.  Their  work  is  frequently  inspected  by 
their  appointed  critics,  and  their  failures  and  suc- 
cesses are  pointed  out.  This  system  varies  widely 
in  some  of  its  details.  For  example,  in  some  schools 
no  teaching  is  done  until  the  pupil  has  finished  his 
professional  studies.  In  others  the  study  of  method 
and  practice  in  teaching  go  together.  Another 
method,  wholly  distinct  from  this,  is  to  call  upon 
the  pupils,  each  in  his  turn,  to  teach  his  own  class. 

It  is  not  my  purpose  here  to  criticize  these  various 
plans.  It  is  sufficient  to  say  that  in  my  judgment, 
formed  after  a  somewhat  varied  experience  and  wide 
observation,  a  practice  school  is  an  essential  factor 
in  a  complete  normal  school ;  that  pupil-teachers 
derive  an  invaluable  experience  by  teaching  veritable 
children,  and  actually  exercising  authority  for  a  con- 
tinuous series  of  months ;  and  that  under  proper 
supervision  this  can  be  done  without  detriment  to 
the  children. 


THE  NORMAL   SCHOOL.  299 

THE    MODEL    SCHOOL. 

A  third  great  part  of  normal-school  work  is  to 
embody  and  exhibit  the  highest  type  of  a  school. 
It  should  be  a  model  school.  The  grounds,  build- 
ings, furnishings,  apparatus,  cabinets,  libraries,  the 
classification,  instruction,  and  discipline,  should  be 
of  the  highest  order.  The  faculty  should  represent 
the  last  best  word  in  the  educational  world,  be  ever 
on  the  alert  to  catch  the  newest  theory,  and  to  adopt 
and  hold  fast  that  which  is  good.  The  school,  in 
order  that  it  may  be  a  complete  object-lesson,  should 
embrace  the  kindergarten,  the  primary,  intermediate, 
grammar,  and  high  school  grades.  There  are  several 
reasons  for  such  a  school.  First,  it  is  a  complement 
to  the  philosophic  ideal,  showing  that  what  ought  to 
be  may  be.  Second,  it  enables  the  pupil-teachers  to 
become  familiar,  by  actual  participation  in  the  daily 
life  of  such  a  school,  with  the  best  principles  of 
government  and  methods  of  teaching.  Third,  such 
a  school  is  an  object-lesson  of  great  value  to  the 
general  public,  putting  before  them  in  concrete  and 
impressive  form  the  new  education. 

CHARACTER    BUILDING. 

The  great  fact  should  not  be  overlooked  that  the 
normal  school  is,  first  of  all,  a  school,  a  seminary  of 
learning  not  only,  but  a  place  for  character  building. 
It  is  so  to  train  the  pupils  —  the  future  teachers — ■ 
as  to  repress  the  evil  and  foster  the  good  in  their 
lives  ;  to  form  habits  of  system,  punctuality,  industry, 


300  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

self-control,  independence,  thoughtfulness,  moral  ear- 
nestness, etc.,  so  that  they  shall  be  prepared  to  teach 
by  example  as  well  as  by  precept,  by  their  lives  as 
well  as  by  their  words. 

The  most  forceful  fact  in  the  teacher's  work  is 
his  personal  character.  What  he  is,  what  he  loves, 
what  his  ideals  are,  what  he  thinks,  by  what  motives 
he  is  governed,  what  company  he  keeps,  what  books 
he  reads,  even  what  his  amusements  are,  all  enter 
vitally  into  his  work  as  a  fashioner  of  youthful  minds 
and  manners.  The  normal  school,  by  wise  methods, 
inculcates  noble  principles,  holds  up  for  imitation  the 
best  examples  of  the  teacher,  and  strives  to  create  in 
the  minds  of  its  pupils  an  ideal  of  the  schoolmaster 
toward  which  they  are  ever  to  aim. 

A    PROFESSIONAL    SPIRIT. 

Even  a  cursory  glance  at  the  relation  which 
teaching  sustains  to  the  well-being  of  humanity  and 
the  progress  of  the  race  in  all  that  is  good  in  per- 
sonal character,  domestic  and  social  life,  art,  science, 
industry,  government,  philosophy,  and  religion,  shows 
that  it  ranks  along  with  the  highest  of  human  call- 
ings. Luther  said,  "  If  I  were  not  a  preacher,  I 
would  be  a  teacher."  Teaching  should  stand  high 
among  the  professions.  It  should  be  rigorous  in  its 
exactions  of  the  requirements  of  those  who  seek  to 
enter  it,  lay  special  stress  upon  character,  learning, 
a.id  largeness  of  soul,  and  jealously  exclude  the 
unworthy  and   the    incompetent.       It    should   allure 


THE  NORMAL   SCHOOL.  30 1 

to  its  ranks  the  noblest  spirits  by  offering  the  best 
facilities  for  the  prosecution  of  their  chosen  work, 
suitable  recompense  for  faithful  service,  social  recog- 
nition, and  a  reasonable  certainty  of  fixed  tenure  oi 
office  so  long  as  the  work  is  efficiently  performed. 

Normal  schools,  properly  equipped  and  ably  man- 
aged, having  before  them  the  one  distinct  object  of 
training  men  and  women  for  this  high  office,  do  by 
their  very  existence  call  attention  to  the  difficulty, 
importance,  and  dignity  of  the  profession.  By  the 
philosophy  which  they  teach,  the  methods  they  pur- 
sue, the  standard  of  requirement  for  admission,  the 
elimination  of  the  incompetent,  the  dismissal  of  the 
unworthy,  and  especially  by  constantly  adding  to  the 
number  of  those  thoroughly  fitted  for  good  service, 
the  normal  school  awakens  a  professional  spirit  —  a 
philosophic,  philanthropic,  patriotic  spirit  ■ —  in  those 
who  give  themselves  to  this  high  calling,  not  as  a 
means  of  livelihood,  a  dernier  7'essort,  but  as  to  a  noble 
lifework,  to  which  they  may  worthily  devote  all  their 
energies  and  attainments. 

THE    PROCESS    OF    EDUCATION    IDENTICAL. 

Much  mischief  has  resulted  from  violently  sepa- 
rating education  into  distinct  stages.  The  process 
of  education  is  an  identical  one,  the  same  throughout 
all  its  progress  from  the  cradle  to  the  college.  It  is 
the  same  mind  taking  its  initiative  lessons  as  it  learns 
to  recognize  its  mother's  smile,  which  later  pursues 
its  investigations  by  peering  into  the  heavens  through 


302  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

the  telescope,  deciphers  monumental  inscriptions,  or 
searches  into  the  deep  things  of  religion.  The  same 
laws  govern  its  growth  and  acquisitions  throughout. 
The  philosophy  of  education  embraces  the  whole 
scheme  of  psychical  evolution,  and  recognizes  it  as 
subject  to  the  same  general  laws  of  didactics  and 
methodology.  Formerly  it  seemed  to  be  thought 
that  any  one  could  teach  children,  and  that  without 
special  preparation.  Now  the  drift  of  public  senti- 
ment seems  to  be  that  only  primary  teachers  need  a 
professional  training. 

PROFESSIONAL    TRAINING    FOR    ALL    TEACHERS, 

The  truth  seems  to  be  that,  in  order  to  attain  the 
highest  results,  all  who  teach,  whether  in  the  home, 
the  school,  or  the  college,  need  a  special  training  for 
the  work.  The  lecturer  in  the  university,  the  pro- 
fessor in  the  college,  the  teacher  in  the  high  school, 
no  less  than  the  grammar  master,  the  primary  in- 
structor, and  the  kindergartner,  require  not  simply 
culture,  education,  but  pedagogical  training. 

A  very  important  part  of  the  normal-school  work 
is  to  train  men  and  women  for  all  grades  of  school 
teaching,  especially  the  higher  grades.  Any  one  at 
all  familiar  with  the  work  of  high  schools  knows  that 
much  of  the  teaching  in  them  is  very  faulty.  Worse 
teaching  than  is  done  in  some  of  the  high  schools  and 
academies  is,  perhaps,  nowhere  to  be  found,  unless 
it  be  in  some  of  the  colleges.  Many  a  college  grad- 
uate goes  haltingly  through  life,  simply  because  his 
instructors  were  ignorant  or  negligent  of  their  work 


THE   NORMAL    SCHOOL.  303 

as  teachers.  Normal-school  training  that  would  serve 
to  improve  the  work  done  in  many  of  the  colleges 
would  be  a  national  benefit.  Besides  this,  the  uni- 
versities and  colleges  are  the  centres  of  thought,  and 
the  educational  ideas  and  methods  that  obtain  in  them 
will  be  dominant  over  all  those  who  come  under  their 
influence.  If  those  who  are  to  teach  there  could 
have  a  special  pedagogical  training  for  their  work, 
the  influence  of  both  their  example  and  precept 
would  be  immediate  and  profound  in  developing  a 
professional  spirit.  The  young  men  aspiring  to  posi- 
tions as  teachers  in  high  schools,  academies,  normal 
and  grammar  schools  —  all  of  whom  should  be  col- 
lege bred  —  would  be  influenced  to  seek  a  normal 
training.  The  mass  of  teachers  for  country  schools 
must  come  from  secondary  schools.  If  these  were 
taught  by  professional  teachers  we  should  at  once 
have  a  class  of  men  and  women  imbued  with  a  pro- 
fessional spirit.  The  influence  of  college  and  high 
school  would  thus  be  enlisted  on  the  side  of  normal 
schools,  instead  of  being  indifferent  or  hostile. 

West  Point  trains  men  not  simply  to  act  as  second 
Jieutenants  or  captains  of  companies,  but  also  as 
colonels  of  regiments,  brigade,  division,  and  corps 
commanders,  and  as  generals-in-chicf  to  command 
the  armies  of  the  United  States.  Grant,  Sherman, 
Sheridan,  Hancock,  Meade,  McClcllan,  Thomas,  were 
all  trained  in  the  military  academy,  and  tlie  history 
of  their  achievements  vindicates  the  policy  of  the 
government.  The  normal  school,  as  a  professional 
school,  should  do  for  the  teaching  profession  what 
West  Point  has  done  for  the  profession  of  arms. 


304  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

The  theological  seminaries  do  not  spend  their 
strength  in  fitting  men  simply  to  be  pastors  of 
feeble  country  churches.  They  strive  to  give  such 
a  training  as  will  fit  them  for  the  most  difficult  posts, 
where  the  severest  demands  will  be  made.  Natural 
selection  and  the  survival  of  the  fittest  do  the  rest. 
The  strongest  and  ablest  go  to  the  front,  the  weaker 
fill  the  easier  positions.  Andover,  Union,  Princeton, 
and  similar  schools  strive  to  furnish  leaders,  and 
thus  to  lift  up  the  whole  body  of  the  profession. 
The  high  places  demand  men  of  professional  train- 
ing. The  example  is  contagious,  and  few  country 
churches  are  now  satisfied  with  an  untrained  pastor. 
The  theological  schools  begin  at  the  top,  and  so 
reach  the  mass. 

The  normal  school,  as  at  present  organized,  is  not 
doing  that  work.  Practically  it  sets  itself  to  the 
task  of  training  men  and  women  —  chiefly  women  — 
for  primary  and  grammar  school  work  and  for  teach- 
ing in  the  rurai  districts.  By  arranging  its  course  of 
study  and  lowering  its  standard  of  admission  to 
accommodate  those  who  seek  to  fit  themselves  for 
teachers  in  lower-grade  schools,  it  practically  shuts 
out  those  who  have  had  a  university  course  and  who 
aspire  to  teach.  Few  of  the  teachers  in  university 
or  high  schools  have  ever  had  a  professional  prepara- 
tion for  their  work,  or  have  ever  seriously  thought 
of  having  such.  So  long  as  the  highest  places  in 
the  profession  of  teaching  are  open  to  and  filled  by 
unprofessional  men,  the  profession  itself  must  suffer 
from  the  lack  in  professional  skill  of  those  who  have 


THE  NORMAL   SCHOOL.  305 

knowledge  and  culture,  but  lack  ability  to  train  and 
impart. 

The  normal  schools  in  America  are  doing  a  good 
work,  and  have  helped  to  bring  about  a  condition  of 
things  and  a  state  of  public  sentiment  which  is  already 
calling  for  something  better.  The  establishment  of 
chairs  of  pedagogy  in  colleges  is  in  response  to  this 
sentiment.  The  point  insisted  upon  here  is  that  the 
time  has  come  for  the  establishment  here  and  there 
of  normal  schools  of  high  grade,  designed  expressly 
and  exclusively  to  "^ive  a  strictly  professional  training 
to  college  graduates  and  others  possessed  of  a  liberal 
education,  to  fit  them  for  the  best  work  in  teaching 
in  high  schools,  academies,  normal  schools,  colleges, 
and  universities. 

Undoubtedly  one  function  of  the  normal  school  is 
to  train  teachers  for  the  country  schools  and  the 
lower  grades  of  city  schools  ;  but  what  is  here  in- 
sisted on  is  that  this  is  not  its  only  or  its  chief  work. 
There  is  the  same  need  of  professional  training  for 
teachers  for  the  higher  grades  as  for  the  lower.  The 
conditions  of  teaching  in  the  country  districts  are 
such  that  there  is  little  inducement  for  those  who 
have  a  normal  training  to  remain  there  permanently. 
If  they  aspire  to  teach  in  the  city  they  at  once  come 
into  rivalry  with  graduates  of  college  and  high  school, 
who,  though  without  professional  training,  have  the 
advantage  of  broader  culture  and  of  local  influence. 

In  so  far  as  normal  graduates  who  have  had  only 
a  grammar-school  training  before  entering  the  nor- 
mal are  employed  as  headmasters  in  grammar  schools, 


306  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

teachers  in  high  schools,  professors  in  normal  schools, 
to  the  exclusion  of  college-bred  men  and  women,  it 
may  well  be  questioned  whether  more  harm  than  good 
may  not  ultimately  result.  Technical  training  can- 
not take  the  place  of  scholarship.  Breadth  is  indis- 
pensable to  the  highest  culture,  and  should  be  required 
of  every  teacher  of  high  grade.  The  normal  school 
is  not  to  displace  the  college  and  the  high  school,  nor 
to  rival  them,  but  to  supplement  their  work  ;  not  to 
substitute  technical  training  for  scholarship,  but  to 
add  to  culture  the  best  professional  training. 

ACADEMIC    WORK. 

A  large  part  of  the  strength  of  normal  schools  is 
spent  in  giving  their  pupils  the  rudiments  of  the 
common-school  studies.  They  do  academic  instead 
of  professional  work.  Against  this  policy  it  may  be 
urged  that  it  is  a  waste  of  resources.  The  normal 
schools  are  required  to  do  what  the  grammar  and 
high  schools  should  do.  It  creates  rivalry  and 
jealousy  between  the  normal  and  high  schools.  It 
degrades  the  normal  from  a  professional  to  a  second- 
ary school,  thus  helping  to  defeat  its  own  end  —  the 
creating  of  a  professional  spirit.  It  fatally  lowers 
the  standard  of  attainment  that  should  be  required 
of  every  teacher.  It  overcrowds  the  course  of  study, 
and,  by  attempting  to  teach  both  matter  and  method, 
does  neither  with  thoroughness.  It  attempts  the 
impossible.  Students  need  more  culture  and  disci- 
pline than  are   now  required  upon  entering  normal 


THE  NORMAL   SCHOOL. 


307 


schools,  and  the  separation  of  matter  and  method 
before  they  can  fully  grasp  the  significance  of 
methodology. 

A  complete  separation  of  matter  and  method,  a 
thorough  differentiation  of  the  normal  school  into 
that  of  a  strictly  professional  school,  would,  it  is 
believed,  be  productive  of  the  following  results : 
The  normal  schools  would  at  once  take  higher  rank 
and  compel  greater  respect.  The  ranks  of  college 
and  high-school  teachers  and  grammar  masters  would 
be  more  largely  recruited  from  the  normal  graduates. 
The  professional  work  would  be  better  done.  Normal- 
school  teachers  would  turn  their  energies  toward  pro- 
ducing pedagogical  literature  rather  than  schoolbooks. 
Normal  students  would  go  out  with  more  clearly 
defined  notions  of  what  constitutes  professional  train- 
ing than  they  now  possess.  The  antagonism  between 
high  school  and  normal  school  would  at  once  cease. 

It  is  worthy  of  note  that  in  the  early  educational 
history  of  this  country  the  great  institutions  of  learn- 
ing were  designed  as  theological  schools,  and  their 
work  was  miscellaneous  and  elementary.  By  a 
natural  process  of  evolution  and  differentiation,  the 
academy,  the  college,  and  the  university  have  grown 
out  of  the  divinity  school.  The  divinity  school  proper, 
now  leaving  to  these  the  work  of  general  culture, 
seeks  to  do  strictly  professional,  post-graduate  work. 

The  normal  school  is  undergoing  something  of  the 
same  healthy  metamorphosis.  The  improvement  and 
multiplication  of  the  schools  of  all  grades  where 
those  who  wish  to  teach  can  receive  the  requisite 


308  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

instruction  in  the  subjects  to  be  taught,  and  the 
growing  public  sentiment,  or  rather  demand,  for  a 
higher  order  of  professional  training,  unite  in  render- 
ing it  possible  and  desirable  for  the  normal  school  to 
do  distinctively  and  exclusively  professional  work. 

CONSERVATIVE    CHANGES. 

Of  course  no  radical  revolutionary  change  should 
be  suddenly  introduced.  That  here  suggested  should 
be  gradual.  One  such  school  might  be  enough  to 
start  with.     It  would  be  soon  followed  by  others. 

For  the  present,  under  the  traditions  of  the  normal 
schools,  and  with  public  sentiment  as  it  now  is,  they 
will  be  obliged  to  do  academic  work.  But  it  should 
be  done  under  protest,  and  with  a  constant  aim  at 
realizing  the  true  ideal  of  the  normal  school  as  an 
institution  of  high  order,  graded  to  meet  the  neces- 
sities of  persons  of  varied  ability,  taste,  and  destiny, 
admitting  only  those  whose  scholastic  attainments 
warrant  it,  and  giving  to  them  the  broadest  and  most 
thorough  professional  culture  possible,  and  so  recruit- 
ing all  grades  of  the  profession  of  teaching  with  those 
who  will  give  it  dignity  and  do  for  the  public  the  best 
kind  of  work. 

It  is  absolutely  necessary  that  those  who  teach 
should  be  well  grounded  in  the  studies  required  in 
the  schools  in  which  they  teach  ;  and  if  those  who 
enter  the  normal  school  are  found  deficient  in  these 
studies  it  will  be  necessary  for  some  time  to  come, 
as  it  has  been  in  the  past,  to  provide  some  means  for 


THE  NORMAL    SCHOOL.  309 

a  thorough  review.  Where  there  is  a  well-organized 
practice  school  the  academic  work  can  be  done  there. 
In  some  cases  a  preparatory  department  may  be  main- 
tained ;  in  others  the  normal  faculty  must  do  this 
work.  But  so  far  as  possible  it  should  be  separate 
from  the  jDrofessional  work,  and  should  be  distinc- 
tively and  professedly  academic,  with  stress  laid 
upon  the  fact  that  the  work  is  extra  normal  and 
temporary. 

SUMMARY. 

To  sum  up,  the  normal  school  is  a  professional 
school,  and  ranks  with  the  theological  seminary,  law 
school,  medical  school,  and  military  academy.  Its 
place  is  that  of  a  post-graduate  school.  Admission 
should  be  limited  to  those  who  have  completed  their 
academic  or  scholastic  work.  Its  spirit,  methods, 
equipment,  and  teaching  force  should  be  of  the 
highest  order.  Its  instruction  should  be  confined 
to  those  subjects  which  sustain  the  most  intimate 
relation  to  the  peculiar  work  of  the  teacher.  Its 
great  function  is  to  add  constantly  to  the  number 
of  those  who  dedicate  themselves  to  teaching  as  a 
lifework,  and  who  seek  to  become,  by  personal  char- 
acter, scholarship,  and  pedagogical  skill,  able  to  do 
the  best  kind  of  work  in  whatever  sphere  of  teach- 
ing they  enter,  whether  in  the  kindergarten,  the 
grammar,  high  school,  college,  or  professional  school. 
It  should  seek,  by  concentration  of  energy  upon 
strictly  professional  work,  to  touch  the  profession 
at  every  point  and  vitalize  and  ennoble  it  in  every 
part. 


XX. 

ADVICE  TO  YOUNG  TEACHERS. 


1  The  following  series  of  familiar  "  falks  "  in  the  form  "  Advice  to  Young 
Teachers  "  will,  it  is  hoped,  be  of  practical  help  to  young  teachers  about 
entering  upon  their  work.  Students  who  have  graduated  from  the  Rhode 
Island  Normal  School  in  the  classes  from  1884  to  1889  will  recognize  here 
the  substance  of  addresses  given  to  their  respective  classes  at  graduation. 

8U 


Man,  it  is  within  yourself,  it  is  in  the  inner  sense  of  your  power, 

that  resides  nature's  instrument  for  your  development. 

Pestalozzi. 

The  price  of  retaining  what  we  know  is  always  to  seek  to  know 
more.  We  preserve  our  learning  and  mental  power  only  by  increasing 
them.  Henry  Darling. 

In  lact,  what  we  learn  at  school  and  in  college  is  but  the  founda- 
tion of  the  great  work  of  self-instruction  and  mutual  instruction  with 
which  the  real  education  of  life  begins  when  what  is  commonly  called 
the  education  is  finished.  EDWARD  EVERETT. 

Patience,  diligence,  quiet,  and  unfatigued  perseverance,  industry, 
regularity,  and  economy  of  time,  as  these  are  the  dispositions  I  would 
labor  to  excite,  so  these  are  the  qualities  I  would  warmly  commend. 

Hannah  More. 

Whatever  I  have  tried  to  do  in  life,  I  have  tried  with  all  my  heart 
to  do  well.  Charles  Dickens. 


XX. 

ADVICE   TO   YOUNG   TEACHERS. 

It  is  the  man  who  takes  in  who  can  give  out.  The  man  who  does 
not  do  the  one  soon  takes  to  spinning  his  own  fancies  out  of  his 
interior,  like  a  spider,  and  he  snares  himself  at  last  as  well  as  his 
victims.  —  Dr.  John  Brown. 

THE   TEACHER'S   CALLING. 

An  aimless  life  is  an  empty  life.  He  only  lives  who 
sets  before  himself  a  high  and  noble  purpose,  and 
then  with  resolute  endeavor  girds  himself  for  the 
great  struggle,  counting  all  toil  light  and  all  sacrifice 
easy  if  he  but  win  the  crown. 

In  what  nobler  calling  could  you  engage  than  in 
teaching  ?  It  is  a  work  of  great  difficulty,  calling 
for  talents  of  a  high  order,  for  varied  attainments, 
for  zeal,  persistence,  industry,  fidelity,  and  other 
high  qualities  of  soul.  It  is  a  work  whose  impor- 
tance cannot  be  stated  in  words.  The  teacher  is  not 
to  be  compared  to  the  potter  whose  skilful  hands 
mold  the  unresisting  clay  into  wondrous  shapes  of 
symmetry  and  beauty ;  nor  to  the  sculptor  who 
evokes  from  the  dead  marble  the  statue  which, 
though  matchless  in  grace  and  dignity,  is  still  but  a 
lifeless  thing,  marred  by  a  blow  and  shattered    by 

313 


SH 


STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 


a  Stroke.  It  is  the  teacher's  prerogative  to  deal 
with  life,  to  call  into  exercise  the  manifold  powers  of 
the  soul,  to  lead  it  to  apprehend  the  marvelous 
beauties  of  this  wondrous  universe,  to  awaken 
thought,  that  the  mind  may  rise  to  at  least  some 
dim  consciousness  of  its  divine  origin  by  thinking 
over  again  the  thoughts  of  God  embodied  in  his 
universe.  It  is  the  teacher's  exalted  privilege  to 
assist  in  training  noble  men  and  women.  Kings 
and  queens  may  bestow  patents  of  nobility  written 
upon  parchments.  Teachers  evoke  a  veritable  no- 
bility of  soul,  which  needs  no  outward  sign.  The 
teacher  works  not  for  time  but  for  eternity.  The 
noblest  monuments  of  art  perish,  even  the  pyramids 
decay,  and  the  proudest  empires  lose  their  power. 
But  the  work  of  the  teacher,  wrought  upon  inde- 
structible mind,  and  incorporated  into  the  very  fibre 
of  the  immortal  spirit,  shall  endure  when  granite 
mountains  are  worn  away  and  the  material  universe 
itself  has  been  dissolved. 

The  teacher's  work,  passing  beyond  the  realm  of 
the  individual,  reaches  to  the  family,  exalts  and 
ennobles  the  home,  pervades  society  with  its  benign 
influence,  strengthens  the  foundations  of  the  State, 
contributes  to  the  glory  of  the  nation,  adds  new 
dignity  to  the  race  whose  noble  deeds  are  in  part 
certainly  the  outcome  of  his  labors. 

The  teacher  is  the  common  benefactor  of  all 
classes.  The  success  of  the  farmer,  the  skill  of  the 
artisan,  the  gains  of  the  merchant,  the  genius  of 
tho   artist,    the   eloquence   of    the    orator,    and    the 


THE    TEACHER'S    CALLING. 


315 


wisdom  of  the  statesman,  each  and  all  are  enhanced 
by  the  wise  training  of  the  faithful  teacher.  The 
common-school  teacher  is  preeminently  the  friend 
and  benefactor  of  the  common  people,  the  industri- 
ous sons  of  toil  upon  whose  labors  depend  the  weal 
of  society  and  the  prosperity  of  the  State.  The 
common-school  teacher,  representing  the  organized 
effort  of  the  Commonwealth,  and  the  ripest  results 
of  modern  scholarship,  takes  by  the  hand  the  child 
of  the  humblest  citizen,  and  gives  to  him  that 
training  and  scholarship  which  starts  him  in  the  race 
of  life  as  a  peer  of  the  lordliest,  and  puts  within  his 
grasp  the  most  coveted  prizes  of  life.  The  university 
is  a  beacon  light  that  warns  of  hidden  rocks  of 
communism  and  socialism.  The  common  school 
excavates  these  rocks  and  makes  of  dangerous  straits 
safe,  deeply  flowing  channels. 

In  choosing  the  work  of  teaching,  you  have  chosen 
that  which,  while  affording  scope  for  a  lifetime  for 
all  that  is  excellent  in  you,  will  also,  in  so  far  as  you 
open  your  souls  to  its  reflex  influence,  continually 
ennoble,  enrich,  and  beautify  your  own  lives. 

I  congratulate  you  upon  the  auspicious  time  for 
entering  upon  your  work.  Even  adverse  criticism 
and  fault-finding  is  a  sign  of  healthy  interest  in 
popular  education.  Never  before  has  there  been 
a  time  when  so  much  thought  was  given  to  this 
great  subject.  The  profound  quarterlies,  the  sprightly 
monthlies,  the  weekly  journals,  the  daily  press,  the 
pulpit,  the  political  parties,  the  state  and  national 
legislatures,  besides  numberless  assemblies  of  teach- 


3  I  6  ^7^  UDIES  IN  FED  A  GOGY. 

ers,  are  discussing  education  in  all  its  phases,  while 
money  is  poured  out  like  water  for  the  erection 
of  schoolhouses,  the  providing  of  apparatus,  the 
employment  of  teachers,  and  the  founding  of 
institutions,  in  order  that  the  people  may  share  in 
the  blessings  of  education.  And  never  has  there 
been  a  time  when  the  capable,  faithful  teacher  was 
so  sure  of  complete  recognition  and  generous  reward 
as  now.  The  future  is  full  of  promise.  I  congratu- 
late you  upon  entering  upon  such  a  work  at  such  a 
time. 

THE    NEW    AND    THE    OLD. 

You  are  about  to  enter  upon  your  work  in  the  midst 
of  a  good  deal  of  turmoil  in  the  educational  world. 
The  air  is  heavy  with  discussions  ;  there  is  a  sharp 
conflict  of  ideas.  Much  is  said  in  favor  of  the  new 
education ;  and  the  old  education  has  its  earnest 
advocates.  There  is  much  that  is  vague  and  misty 
in  this  discussion.  Precisely  what  is  meant  by  the 
new  education  is  not  clearly  understood.  Some 
understand  the  term  new  education  to  mean  the 
teaching  of  physical  science  ;  some  the  kinder- 
garten ;  some  the  so-called  natural  method  ;  some 
the  common-school  system,  and  some  identify  the 
new  education  with  the  teachings  and  practices  of 
the  late  superintendent  at  Ouincy.  Without  enter- 
ing into  this  controversy,  it  is  sufficient  to  say  that 
there  are  two  pretty  clearly  marked  parties  —  the 
conservatives  and  the  radicals.  There  are  those 
who  cling  to  the  old  as  the  ne  plus  ultra  of  human 


THE    TEACHER'S   CALLING.  317 

endeavor.  They  regard  all  change  as  revolutionary 
and  treasonable.  The  other  party  discard  the  old 
because  it  is  old,  and  welcome  the  new  because  it 
is  new. 

You  are  not  called  upon  to  take  sides  with  either 
of  these  parties.  Nor  are  you  to  be  indifferent  to 
both.  The  extremists  of  both  parties  are  wrong. 
You  are  to  accept  that  which  is  true  and  follow 
that  which  is  best,  whether  in  the  new  or  in  the  old. 
The  subject  of  education  is  not  a  new  subject.  It 
is  as  old  as  the  human  race.  It  has  claimed  the 
attention  of  great  thinkers,  and  engaged  the  highest 
activities  of  great  teachers  in  all  ages.  Plato  and 
Ouintilian  among  the  ancient,  Locke,  Comenius, 
Pestalozzi,  and  Froebel  among  later  writers,  have 
grappled  with  the  question  philosophically,  while 
every  age  has  had  its  systems  of  instruction.  The 
schools  of  the  prophets  founded  by  Samuel,  three 
thousand  years  ago  ;  the  schools  that  have  always 
followed  in  the  wake  of  Christianity  ;  the  schools 
organized  by  Charlemagne  ;  the  network  of  tuition 
thrown  by  the  Jesuits  over  all  Europe  ;  the  great 
universities  of  England  and  the  Continent  ;  the 
system  of  popular  instruction  devised  by  our  fathers, 
have  each  had  their  peculiar  excellences,  and  ac- 
complished for  the  race,  in  their  day,  much  that 
is  admirable  and  enduring.  The  teacher  should  be 
a  student  of  history.  The  historic  spirit  is  a  con- 
servative spirit.  We  are  to  conserve  the  true  and 
the  good.  It  was  not  without  wisdom  that  our 
fathers  planted  the    elms    that    have  weathered    the 


3  I  8  ST UDIES  IN  PEDA GOGY. 

blasts  of  centuries,  and  in  whose  grateful  shade  we 
sit  to-day.  They  are  a  heritage  from  the  past  to  be 
cherished  and  loved  and  venerated.  Nothing  in 
modern  times  surpasses  in  massive  endurance  the 
pyramids  of  Egypt;  while  the  matchless  beauty  of 
the  old  Greek  temple  is  the  consummation  of  art. 
In  education  we  are  debtors  to  the  past,  and  our 
highest  wisdom  lies  in  the  revenmt  study  of  the 
educational  theories  and  practices  handed  down  to 
us  from  other  generations.  Antiquity  lends  an 
added  charm  to  whatever  is  true  and  beautiful  and 
good  in  art,  culture,   or  religion. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  changed  conditions  of 
modern  life,  the  new  systems  of  science  and 
philosophy,  the  constant  efforts  made  to  bring 
within  the  reach  of  the  many  the  results  of  the 
investigations  and  studies  of  the  few,  necessitate 
a  remodeling  of  our  systems  of  education,  a 
reconstruction  of  our  courses  of  study,  and  an 
improvement  in  our  methods  of  instruction. 

INDEPENDENCE. 

You  are  not  to  be  imitators  and  copyists.  Teacliing 
is  not  a  trade  that  can  be  taught  by  rule.  You  will 
not  succeed  in  your  work  by  simply  doing  as  you 
have  seen  others  do.  Be  yourselves ;  study  the 
minds  and  dispositions  and  surroundings  of  those 
whom  you  are  to  train  ;  make  yourselves  masters 
of  the  subjects  you  are  to  teach  ;  form  for  yourselves 
methods  of  teaching  of  your  own,  and  devise  your 
own  systems  of  government,  and  then,  with  reverent 


THE   SIGNIFICANCE    OF  DIFFICULTIES.       319 

regard  for  truth  and  excellence,  whether  old  or  new, 
do  that  which  seems  best  to  you.  With  no  spirit  of 
bravado  or  irreverence,  and  no  assumption  of  su- 
periority, but  with  a  spirit  of  humility  and  meekness, 
seek  industriously  for  the  truth,  and  when  you  find 
it  pursue  it.  Progress  of  any  kind  in  human  society 
is  only  possible  as  the  result  of  independent  thinking, 
and  action  based  on  that  thought.  The  spirit  of  the 
new  education  is  a  spirit  of  freedom,  of  liberty,  of 
progress.  Call  no  man  master;  be  slaves  to  no 
system  ;  follow  blindly  no  method.  Be  studious, 
thoughtful,  industrious,  true  to  your  convictions  and 
faithful  to  duty. 


THE    SIGNIFICANCE    OF    DIFFICULTIES. 

In  the  course  of  your  work  you  will  doubtless 
meet  with  difficulties  and  discouragements,  and  your 
spirits  will  sometimes  not  be  as  buoyant  as  to-day. 
If  at  such  times  you  should  be  tempted  to  despond, 
remember  that  trials  are  incident  to  life.  No  one 
escapes.  They  belong  to  life  as  life.  They  are  a 
part  of  our  discipline.  The  soul  seems  to  need  them 
as  indispensable  means  for  its  own  development. 
Recall  that  maxim  with  which  you  have  become  so 
familiar  —  "  Exercise  is  the  law  of  growth."  Some 
of  the  noblest  powers  of  tlie  soul  arc  called  into 
exercise  only  by  the  emergencies  of  life.  The  true 
greatness  of  the  soul  is  made  manifest  by  its  manner 
of  meeting  trials.     It  required  banishment  and  exile 


320  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

to  reveal  the  transcendent  glory  of  the  character  of 
Roger  Williams.  The  greatness  of  Lincoln  could 
only  be  measured  by  the  vastness  of  the  difficulties 
he  met  and  overcame.  One  of  the  chief  glories  of 
life  is  in  bearing  bravely  its  trials.  The  electric 
lights  that  flash  out  from  the  Brooklyn  bridge  dazzle 
by  their  brilliancy,  but  it  is  the  strength  of  the  mas- 
sive granite  piers  upon  which  the  vast  structure 
depends  for  its  great  utility.  Sweet  indeed  are  the 
uses  of  adversity,  if  rightly  improved.  Patience, 
resignation,  fortitude,  courage,  hope,  industry,  are 
some  of  the  high  qualities  of  soul  that  can  only 
flourish  under  trial.  Poverty  is  not  to  be  despised, 
labor  is  not  a  curse,  defeat  is  often  only  a  larger  vic- 
tory in  disguise. 

If  you  should  be  tempted  to  think  your  trials 
peculiar,  remember  that  this  is  only  because  you 
yourselves  are  peculiar.  No  soul  is  like  another. 
Every  life  is  peculiar.  The  heart  knoweth  its  own 
bitterness.  Strive  to  show  yourselves  peculiar  in 
the  heroism  with  which  your  trials  are  borne.  Glad- 
stone the  Premier  was  great  when  bearing  upon  his 
Atlantean  shoulders  the  burdens  of  an  empire.  Glad- 
stone the  citizen  is  no  less  great  in  the  equanimity 
with  which  he  bears  defeat. 

Wealth,  luxury,  ease,  leisure,  are  very  doubtful 
blessings.  They  are  seldom  accompanied  with  hap- 
piness, and  certainly  not  always  with  goodness. 
The  chief  if  not  the  only  value  of  money  is  that 
the  responsibility  for  its  care,  safety,  and  right  use 
call  for  the  exercise  of  high   qualities  of  soul.     Its 


INDEPENDENT    THINKING. 


321 


responsibilities  are  fully  commensurate  with  its 
pleasures.  It  corrupts  and  degrades  quite  as  many 
as  it  ennobles.  Wealth  is  simply  opportunity.  Its 
value  depends  upon  its  use. 

Verily, 
I  swear,  't  is  better  to  be  lowly  born 
And  range  with  humble  livers  in  content, 
Than  to  be  perk'd  up  in  a  glistering  grief. 
And  wear  a  golden  sorrow. 

Trials  are  but  opportunities.  Yielded  to,  they 
enslave  and  crush  us ;  conquered,  they  crown  us 
kings. 

Strive  then,  dear  friends,  to  make  the  most  of 
every  day.  Get  good  from  everything.  Be  cheerful 
and  hopeful. 

Let  all  the  ends  thou  ainrst  at  be  thy  country's, 
Thy  God's,  and  truth's. 

And  may  He  whose  kindly  watchcare  has  brought 
us  all  safely  to  this  glad  hour  of  ytjur  graduation, 
keep  you  to  the  end  of  life's  jornncy,  grant  you  all 
the  success 'that  you  can  endure,  and  sanctify  to  you 
whatever  of  trial  you  may  be  called  to  undergo. 


INDEPENDENT   THINKING. 

The  truth  presses  itself  upon  me  with  great 
emphasis  that  the  controlling  forces  of  life  are  not 
words,  nor  anything  else  that  comes  from  without. 
The  secret  springs  of  life  lie  within  us.     Your  work, 


32  2  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

your  failures,  your  successes,  will  be  determined  very 
little  by  what  may  be  said  to  you  by  others.  Words 
will  have  less  and  less  weight. 

Your  course  will  be  determined  far  less  by  what 
you  hear  than  by  what  you  think.  Words  are  but 
symbols,  thoughts  are  powers.  Not  other  people's 
but  your  own.  thoughts  are  the  great  forces  that  will 
mold  your  lives.  The  perplexing  questions  that 
will  confront  you  are  to  be  thought  out.  Life's 
problems  are  genuine  test  examples.  They  are 
unclassified,  accompanied  by  no  rules,  and  have  no 
answers.  There  is  no  "Teacher's  Edition"  to  be 
had  at  any  price.  In  solving  them  you  can  have 
little  or  no  help  from  either  books  or  friends.  For 
this  test  cramming  will  not  avail,  tears  will  not  help 
you,  no  favoritism  will  be  shown,  and  no  mistakes 
will  be  made  in  the  marking.  Although  cheating 
may  seem  to  be  helpful  for  a  time,  yet  in  the  long 
run  the  only  thing  that  will  be  found  truly  service- 
able to  you  will  be  downright  honest,  patient, 
persistent,  careful  thinking.  The  one  great  power 
on  which  we  must  chiefly  rely  in  the  shaping  of  our 
lives  is  the  power  to  think.  That  godlike  gift,  by 
virtue  of  which  we  grasp  rugged  facts  in  their 
relations  and  principles,  trace  effects  to  their  remote 
and  -hidden  causes,  and  see  at  a  glance  the  far- 
reaching  and  diversified  results  of  present  agencies, 
enabling  us  to  shape  our  action  by  immutable  law 
and  unchanging  principles,  and  to  have  a  valid  reason 
for  everything  we  do,  is  the  crowning  glory  of  our 
being. 


INDEPENDENT    THINKING.  323 

You  will  be  compelled  to  do  your  own  thinking. 
No  one  will  or  can  do  it  for  you.  Even  when  you 
consult  authorities  it  will  be  well  to  be  able  to  go 
behind  opinions  to  the  reasons,  and  below  these  to 
the  primal  facts  on  which  they  rest.  You  must 
work  your  own  way  out  of  darkness  into  light. 
Sunshine  dispels  darkness ;  water  quenches  fire ; 
winds  drive  away  fogs ;  s.o  thought  clears  away 
doubt,  refreshes  the  mind,  and  makes  clear  the 
line  of  action.  If  you  have  not  learned  to  think 
you  will  be  like  children  crying  in  the  dark  ;  or  like 
sheep  driven  to  the  market;  or  like  slaves  subject  to 
your  masters.  You  will  be  like  ciphers  occupying 
vacant  places,  until  the  significant  figure,  whose 
place  you  temporarily  fill,  comes  to  claim  it  for 
himself.  But  if  you  have  learned  to  do  your  own 
thinking,  and  a  little  meanwhile  for  other  people,  we 
may  bid  you  godspeed,  and  safely  predict  for  you  a 
career  of  usefulness  and  honor  in  any  sphere  suited 
to  your  capacities  and  attainments. 

You  have  heard  much  of  methods,  but  there  is  no 
regal  method  except  the  method  of  rational  thinking. 
To  do  the  right  thing  at  the  right  time  and  in  the 
right  way — this  is  the  substance  of  method;  and 
the  secret  of  it  cannot  be  formulated,  much  less 
communicated ;  it  cannot  be  learned,  but  it  is  to  bo 
thought  out. 

You  have  heard  much  in  advocacy  of  reading,  but 
it  is  better  to  think  than  to  read.  Reading  without 
thinking  is  a  sort  of  mental  dissipation.  The  demand 
of  the  hour  is  for  teachers'  thinking:  circles.     Think- 


324  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

ing  transmutes  reading  into  knowledge,  knowledge 
into  science,  science  into  culture,  culture  into  char- 
acter, and  the  whole  into  power. 

Cultivate  the  habit  of  thoughtfulness.  Thinking 
is  hard  work  ;  it  taxes  the  mind,  wearies  the  brain, 
tires  the  body.  It  exhausts  the  energies  much  more 
than  manual  labor.  The  brain,  considered  as  the 
organ  of  thought,  is  the  most  wonderful  piece  of 
mechanism  ever  wrought.  Nothing  less  than  divine 
wisdom  could  have  contrived  it.  To  use  this  organ 
is  one  of  the  highest  prerogatives  of  man.  Man  is 
a  rational  animal.  To  think  is  to  be  man  ;  what  then 
is  it  not  to  think } 

The  motto  which  you  have  chosen  is  peculiarly 
significant.  "  Why,  and  what  then  }  "  It  suggests 
philosophic  inquiry,  a  search  for  causes  and  results. 
Nothing  exists  in  this  world  without  a  cause.  Vapors 
rise  and  snow  falls.  Why  .''  Planets  revolve  about 
their  sun,  and  suns  about  their  centre,  and  every- 
where in  the  universe  is  order,  system,  law,  intelli- 
gence.    Why .'' 

To-day  you  finish  your  course  of  study,  and  we 
bid  you  farewell.  "What  then.''"  To-morrow  you 
enter  the  schoolroom  and  stand  in  the  presence 
of  groups  of  children  who  will  look  to  you  for 
instruction,  training,  counsel,  example.  What  then  ? 
In  a  few  short  years  —  they  will  seem  as  days  — your 
pupils  will  stand  before  you  as  you  now  stand  before 
me,  to  hear  your  parting  words'  before  they  take 
their  places  in  life  as  productive  forces.  What 
then  ?      The  final  day  will  come  ;  accounts  will   be 


INDEPENDENT    THINKING. 


325 


balanced ;  records  will  be  made  up  ;  rewards  will  be 
distributed  ;  you  will  stand  looking  out  into  that 
endless  future  whither  we  are  all  hastening.  What 
then  ? 

The  other  day  I  heard  a  teacher  from  a  neighboring 
State  repeating  the  motto  of  his  class,  adopted  many 
years  ago  when  he  was  a  senior  in  a  normal  school: 
"Deeds  not  words."  All  these  years,  he  said,  he 
had  tried  to  live  up  to  that  motto.  May  you  live  up 
to  the  spirit  of  yours.  Ever  seek  to  find  answers  to 
these  great  questions.  I  do  not  mean  that  you  are 
to  become  philosophers  at  a  single  bound.  Thought- 
power  is  of  slow  growth.  Time  and  experience  are 
requisite  for  its  perfection.  You  are  not  necessarily 
to  become  reformers.  Great  thinkers  who  revolu- 
tionize by  their  thoughts  are  rare.  One  or  two  in  a 
century  suffices.  The  world  has  not  yet  embodied 
in  deeds  the  ideas  of  its  master-thinkers.  Much  less 
are  you  to  be  iconoclasts.  The  world  is  full  of  the 
treasures  of  thought,  more  precious  than  works  of 
art.  They  are  to  be  reverenced,  loved,  and  protected. 
Seek  not  to  destroy,  but  to  conserve.  Least  of  all 
do  I  counsel  you  to  become  what  are  styled  "free 
thinkers."  All  of  our  thinking  is  limited  by  law  and 
reality.  He  who  discards  these  limitations  is  like  a 
sea-captain  who  destroys  his  chart  and  compass  and 
cuts  away  his  rudder,  in  order  to  be  free  to  sail  the 
ocean  at  his  own  sweet  will.  Alas  !  he  is  no  longer 
free,  but  is  helpless,  the  sport  of  the  wind  and  the 
victim  of  storms. 

Accept    the    spirit    of   your    motto,    which    is    an 


326  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

inquiring  spirit,  a  thoughtful  spirit,  a  philosophic 
spirit.  Modestly,  earnestly,  within  your  own  sphere, 
in  all  practical  matters,  in  school  and  out,  think. 
And  so  far  as  in  you  lies  grapple  with  the  great 
questions  of  the  day,  social,  educational,  political, 
literary,  religious,  and  form  your  own  independent 
judgments  thereon.  And  our  fervent  wish  for  you 
each  is  that  the  results  of  what  the  brain  thinks  and 
the  will  accomplishes  may  be  all  that  the  heart 
desires. 


CULTURE,   CITIZENSHIP,    CHARACTER. 

To-day  your  thoughts  are  turned  to  the  future, 
toward  what  may  be,  rather  than  to  what  has  been. 
You  are  young,  and  your  spirit  is  that  of  hope, 
prophecy,  and  endeavor,  rather  than  of  reminiscence, 
eulogy,  and  congratulation.  You  seem  to  have  been 
unconsciously  influenced  by  this  spirit  in  selecting 
your  motto,  "Consider  the  End."  You  are  to  be 
enrolled  with  that  vast  body  of  men  and  women  who 
are  attempting  to  administer  the  public-school  system 
of  America.  You  dedicate  yourselves  to  a  great 
purpose.  You  embark  in  an  enterprise  without  a 
parallel  in  the  annals  of  the  world.  When  before  did 
any  people  ever  undertake  to  bring  the  blessings  of 
a  liberal  education  within  the  reach  of  every  boy  and 
girl  of  school  age,  and  to  afford  to  all  alike,  without 
regard  to  sex,  color,  or  class,  the  inestimable  benefits 
of  mental  culture  .-*  The  nation  seeks  through  you 
and  other  teachers  of  its  common  schools   to  lift  to 


CULTURE,  CITIZEXSiriP,  CHARACTER.        327 

a  high  plane  of  independent  manhood  and  woman- 
hood a  whole  generation  of  its  youth.  This  is  truly 
a  heroic  endeavor  worthy  of  those  whose  sublime 
faith  in  humanity  has  been  shown  in  the  declaration 
of  human  equality,  the  emancipation  of  a  race  of 
slaves,  and  the  experiment  of  universal  suffrage. 

The  nation  whose  destiny  you  are  to  help  mold 
will  number  in  your  day  one  hundred  million  people. 
In  extent  of  territory,  in  wealth,  in  population,  in  all 
the  essential  elements  of  civilization,  in  dignity  at 
home  and  influence  abroad,  you  will  see  the 
United  States  standing  among  the  very  foremost 
nations  of  the  globe.  Her  preeminence  will  be 
acknowledged  by  the  world.  You  and  the  thou- 
sands who,  like  you,  now  enter  upon  your  noble 
lifework  in  the  schoolroom  will  by  your  teaching 
help  to  win  for  the  Republic  that  proud  place. 

In  the  attainment  of  this  ultimate  end,  you  and 
your  fellow-teachers  in  the  free  schools  of  America 
are  to  seek  to  do  these  things  :  — 

I.  To  bring  about,  so  far  as  possible,  a  common 
life  among  our  peoples.  Our  population  comprises 
representatives  of  all  nations,  languages,  classes, 
and  creeds.  English,  Scotch,  French,  Germans, 
Irish,  Italians,  and  Africans  ;  Protestants,  Catholics, 
and  atheists  ;  nihilists,  anarchists,  socialists,  and 
communists,  all  are  here.  The  children  who  will 
enter  your  schoolrooms  will  in  some  cases  be  unable 
to  understand  one  another.  They  will  represent  the 
most  violent  antagonisms,  political,  social,  and  reli- 
gious.    When  they  leave  your  presence  see  to  it  that 


328  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

they  go  speaking  the  same  language,  eager  in  the 
same  pursuits  of  knowledge,  loving  the  same  institu- 
tions, loyal  to  the  same  flag,  proud  of  the  same  his- 
tory, and  acknowledging  the  one  God  the  maker  of 
us  all. 

The  fathers  may  indeed  be  strangers,  aliens,  ene- 
mies. See  to  it  that  the  children  shall  be  compan- 
ions, friends,  brethren. 

2.  Another  end  that  you  are  to  consider  is  the 
promotion  of  the  intelligence  of  your  pupils.  I  do 
not  mean  simply  that  you  are  to  teach  them  the 
mere  facts  of  arithmetic,  grammar,  and  geography,  but 
that  you  are  to  train  them  to  form  intelligent  opin- 
ions on  these  and  other  subjects.  Everything  can- 
not be  taught  in  the  common  schools,  but  children 
can  be  trained  to  think  correctly  about  a  great 
variety  of  things.  And  it  is  this  power  of  thinking, 
of  reaching  right  conclusions,  of  forming  deliberate 
judgments,  that  is  to  be  sought  for  in  teaching. 
Facts  are  only  aids  to  thinking.  What  a  man  thinks 
is  vastly  more  important  than  what  he  knows. 
Knowledge  is  only  a  means  to  an  end  ;  wisdom  is 
an  end  in  itself. 

I  remember  that  I  address  young  women.  But  I 
rejoice  in  the  thought  of  that  new  era  for  women 
which  is  bursting  upon  us,  an  era  symbolized  by  the 
fact  that  the  State  entrusts  its  destiny  to  women  by 
making  them  almost  exclusively  the  teachers  of  its 
common  schools.  |  To-day  and  here  it  is  the  privilege 
of  women  as  never  before  and  nowhere  else  to  have 
opinions    of    their   own    on    questions    of   literature. 


CULTURE,    CITIZENSHIP,    CHARACTER.       329 

philosophy,  history,  and  poHtics,  and  to  have  a  voice 
in  molding  public  opinion.  The  girls  who  come  to 
you  are  to  be  stimulated  to  high  thinking,  to  intelli- 
gent participation  in  all  the  great  philanthropic  and 
moral  enterprises  of  the  day.  Seek  to  awaken  in 
them  aspirations  after  the  broadest  culture  within 
reach. 

3.  But  a  higher  end  than  wisdom  is  good  citizen- 
ship. The  State  has  educated  you  with  great  care 
and  at  large  expense,  in  order  that  you  may  be  com- 
petent to  fit  its  youth  for  the  right  discharge  of  their 
duties  as  citizens.  You  are  to  train  them  to  be  not 
only  capable  of  forming  right  opinions  on  questions 
of  public  interest,  but  to  be  able  and  willing  to  dis- 
charge their  public  duties.  They  must  not  only 
know  them,  but  must  actually  perform  them.  They 
must  be  taught  not  only  to  admire  truth  and  virtue, 
but  must  be  trained  so  that  they  will  not  only  in 
ordinary  but  in  extraordinary  cases,  as  voters,  jurors, 
witnesses,  legislators,  judges,  aldermen,  and  congress- 
men, prove  faithful  to  their  trust,  prefer  the  public 
weal  to  private  gain,  and  hold  their  honor  above  all 
price.  Consider  good  citizensliip,  honor,  integrity, 
fidelity,  active  participancy  in  public  affairs,  shirking 
no  duties  and  fulfilling  all  obligations,  as  the  final 
end  for  which  the  State  has  educated  you  as  teachers. 
Those  who  are  to  sit  under  your  teaching  and  feel 
the  molding  power  of  your  influence  ought  to  go 
out  into  life  better  prepared  for  all  its  duties.  They 
should  be  better  workmen,  better  overseers,  better 
husbands,  and  better  wives.    Education  should  touch 


330  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

the  mainsprings  of  mind  and  heart  and  will,  and 
make  itself  manifest  in  all  the  relations  of  life. 
It  should  change  the  individual,  the  family,  the 
Church,  the  State ;  affecting  both  rich  and  poor, 
capital  and  labor,  and  improve  not  only  the  opinions 
and  social  customs,  but  also  the  laws  and  institutions 
of  the  State,  the  nation,  and  the  race. 

4.  Once  more  let  me  ask  you  to  consider  that  the 
final  end  of  all  teaching  is  not  knowledge  or  wisdom 
or  conduct,  but  character.  In  considering  the  lives 
of  the  heroes  of  the  past  we  are  not  satisfied  with  a 
knowledge  of  what  they  knew  or  thought  or  did. 
We  ask,  What  kind  of  men  were  they  .''  It  is  not 
the  hero  of  many  battles  that  we  love  to  recall,  but 
the  man  Grant,  humane  in  battle,  magnanimous  in 
victory,  undismayed  by  defeat,  just  in  misfortune, 
patient  in  sickness,  thoughtful  for  his  family  in  the 
last  great  struggle  with  death.  These  are  the  high 
qualities  of  soul  that  touch  our  hearts,  awaken  our 
pride,  and  arouse  our  enthusiasm.  The  glory  of  a 
nation  is  the  manhood  and  womanhood  it  produces. 
This  is  the  goal  toward  which  the  family,  the  school, 
the  Church,  and  the  State  all  strive. 

In  devoting  yourselves  to  the  high  calling  of  teach- 
ing you  place  yourselves  in  the  very  centres  of  power. 
In  no  other  place  can  you  work  so  effectively  for 
humanity.  Nowhere  else  can  you,  by  precept  and 
example,  by  teaching  and  by  training,  exert  an  influ- 
ence in  shaping  the  national  character  which  will  be 
more  deeply,  widely,  and  permanently  felt  than  in 
the    schoolroom.       This   consideration    of  the  noble 


WORK   OF   THE  PRIMARY    TEACHER.  33  I 

ends  of  your  labor  may  serve  to  stimulate  you  to  do 
your  best  work.  It  will  quicken  you  in  the  hour  of 
sluggishness,  sustain  you  in  discouragement,  com- 
fort you  in  toil,  and  reward  you  when  your  work  is 
done. 


THE   WORK  OF   THE   PRIMARY   TEACHER. 

The  subject  to  which  you  have  given  much  special 
attention  is  that  of  the  primary  school.  You  have 
thought  and  talked  of  the  little  ones,  their  first  days 
at  school,  their  first  impressions,  and  their  first  les- 
sons. The  subject  is  one  of  fascinating  interest 
and  of  the  weightiest  moment.  I  cannot  do  better, 
perhaps,  in  these  last  words  to  you  as  a  class,  than 
to  deepen  the  impression  already  made  in  your  minds 
on  this  great  subject  by  suggesting  some  foundation 
thoughts. 

I.  That  which  underlies  all  else  is  the  thought 
that  the  primary  teacher  has  to  do  with  living  souls. 
The  schoolroom  is  a  place  of  life,  not  of  death,  of 
growth  from  within ;  and  all  your  methods  and 
processes  are  to  be  governed  by  this  one  supreme 
fact.  Life  has  its  own  laws,  and  asserts  itself  in  its 
own  way.  A  sculptor  may  evoke  from  the  marble 
whatsoever  form  he  wills,  because  the  marble  is 
passive.  The  teacher  is  not  a  sculptor  ;  he  does 
not  deal  with  matter,  he  deals  with  mind.  He 
cannot  shape  mind*  as  he  will,  but  must  conform 
to  the  laws  of  its  development.  He  stands  in  the 
presence  of  a  mighty  force  which   he  may  hinder 


332 


STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 


indeed,  but  which  he  cannot  radically  change  and 
make  other  than  it  is.  Every  child  by  virtue  of  his 
birthright  is  the  peer  of  the  teacher.  To  educate  him 
properly  he  must  study  him  thoroughly.  The  soul  is 
not  clay  to  be  molded,  wax  to  be  stamped,  paper  to 
be  written  on,  a  vessel  to  be  filled,  nor  even  a 
diamond  to  be  polished.  It  is  a  living  force  to  be 
nurtured,  trained,  developed.  It  demands  oppor- 
tunity, conditions  of  growth,  favorable  environment. 
Carefully  foster   the  growth  of   these   living   souls. 

2.  A  second  thought  is  that  you  have  to  do  with 
free  beings.  In  the  primary  school  especially,  where 
children  seem  so  helpless,  so  plastic,  so  completely 
at  the  mercy  of  the  master,  we  need  to  be  on  our 
guard  lest  we  attempt  to  play  the  despot.  We  are 
not  to  rule  absolutely,  but  to  preside.  Where  there 
is  life  there  must  be  liberty.  Everything  that  the 
teacher  does  for  the  education  of  the  child  is  condi- 
tioned upon  the  child's  will.  If  he  does  not  choose 
to  learn,  the  teacher's  work  is  vain.  Compulsion  is 
without  efficacy  unless  it  issue  in  choice.  Sponta- 
neity is  an  invariable  accompaniment  of  life,  and 
should  as  far  as  possible  characterize  every  school- 
room. Frost  is  not  more  destructive  of  the  bursting 
bud,  than  arbitrary  repression  of  the  growing  mind. 
Let  liberty  have  its  proper  place. 

3.  The  spirit  of  the  primary  school  should  be  a 
spirit  of  love.  What  sunshine  is  to  the  garden,  love 
is  to  the  schoolroom.  Lichens  will  grow  on  rocks, 
and  stunted  oaks  are  found  in  high  altitudes  ;  some 
hardy  flowers  may   bloom  even   in  the  snow.     But 


WORK    OF   THE  PRIMARY   TEACHER.  y^-i^ 

luxuriance  of  vegetation,  rich  fruits,  and  golden 
harvests  are  the  products  of  warmer  climates.  That 
which  is  noblest,  sweetest,  best  in  child-life  is  evoked 
by  sympathy,  gentleness,  patience.  The  primary 
school  needs  a  summer  climate.  It  is  only  as  we 
enter  into  closest  relationship  with  the  child-heart 
that  we  reach  and  move  that  delicate  and  yet  mighty 
engine,  the  child's  will.  Whom  the  child  loves  he 
obeys.  Fear  degrades,  paralyzes,  dwarfs  ;  love  enno- 
bles, quickens,  makes  grand.  The  child  that  loves 
truth,  beauty,  goodness,  strives  for  them,  and  by  the 
striving  becomes  good  and  beautiful  and  true.  Let 
love  reign. 

4.  But  I  would  not  be  understood  to  favor  law- 
lessness. The  primary  school  must  be  a  place  of 
law.  What  I  plead  for  is  that  the  law  may  be  rational 
and  not  arbitrary.  The  principle  of  loyalty  is  deeply 
imbedded  in  the  human  soul.  Man  from  his  very 
nature  is  an  obedient  animal.  While  he  craves 
liberty,  he  heartily  concedes  homage.  The  child 
loves  order,  system,  rule,  and  submits  easily  and 
happily  to  control  if  wisely  managed.  There  must 
in  every  school  be  rules  and  regulations,  laws  and 
penalties,  restraint,  discipline,  government.  But  it 
should  be  such  government  as  is  consonant  with  the 
iiighest  welfare  of  the  child  and  the  deepest  demands 
of  his  nature.  The  laws  of  the  schoolroom  should 
be  only  such  as  are  necessitated  by  the  nature  of  the 
case;  they  should  ])e  founded  on  justice,  enforced  by 
wise  penalties,  and  administered  in  loving  firmness. 
The  child's  obedience  should  seem  to  spring  from 


334  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

within.  The  law  should  as  far  as  possible  be  self- 
imposed.  What  is  most  desired  is  not  obedience, 
but  loyalty.  Servile  obedience  is  degrading  whether 
in  child  or  man.  School  discipline  is  not  designed 
to  foster  obedience  for  its  own  sake.  But  loyalty, 
a  glad,  free  subjection  to  law,  is  ennobling.  The 
soul  can  never  outgrow  the  need  of  loyalty.  The 
school  should  seek  to  cultivate  this  spirit.  A  child 
loyal  to  truth,  to  duty,  to  conscience,  will  be  loyal  to 
the  State  and  to  God.     Encourage  loyalty. 

The  primary  teacher  who  enters  the  school  with 
this  high  ideal  of  the  nature  of  the  work,  realizing 
the  forces  to  be  dealt  with,  the  ends  to  be  aimed  at, 
the  methods  to  be  employed,  the  spirit  to  be  culti- 
vated, will  find  the  schoolroom  an  enchanting  place, 
and  the  work  there  full  of  inspiration.  Each  day 
will  bring  its  own  reward,  and  each  trial  will  have  its 
compensation.  To  witness  the  young  minds  growing 
in  power  to  know,  to  feel,  and  to  do,  and,  under  the 
sweet  influences  of  liberty,  law,  love,  and  kindly 
guidance,  becoming  wise,  strong,  and  good,  will  be  a 
sight  ever  new,  beautiful,  and  glorious. 

Let  these  be  your  foundation  words  —  life,  liberty, 
love,  loyalty. 

THE    TEACHER'S    GROWTH. 

We  expect  very  much  of  you  in  the  future,  and  in 
order  that  you  may  know  what  our  hopes  are,  I  will 
briefly  enumerate  some  of  the  things  which  we  hope 
you  will  do. 


THE    TEACHER'S   GROWTH. 


335 


We  expect  you  to  continue  to  be  students  of 
pedagogy.  During  your  connection  with  the  nor- 
mal school  your  attention  has  been  directed  to  this 
subject ;  you  have  worked  faithfully  and  successfully, 
and  have  made  a  good  beginning.  But  all  that  we 
have  aimed  to  do  has  been  to  open  the  matter  before 
you,  give  you  a  clew  to  it,  awaken  an  interest  in  it, 
suggest  books  and  plans  of  study,  point  out  some  of 
its  practical  bearings,  and  acquaint  you  with  some 
of  its  elementary  truths.  We  think  that  most  of 
you  are  now  prepared  to  begin  for  yourselves  an 
extended,  systematic,  thorough  investigation  of  this 
great  subject.  Pedagogy  is  a  philosophical  science. 
It  rests  upon  definitions  and  first  principles.  Its 
parts  are  con  elated  and  mutually  dependent.  Its 
laws  can  be  formulated,  its  conclusions  verified,  its 
principles  admit  of  exact  application,  and  theii- 
results  can  be  anticipated  with  a  large  degree  of 
certainty  and  precision.  But  the  data  for  the 
science  must  be  gathered  from  many  and  widely 
diverse  fields.  Pedagogy  is  the  science  of  devel- 
oping the  human  soul  to  its  highest  degree  by  means 
of  teaching.  It  involves,  therefore,  a  knowledge  of 
man  in  his  entirety.  Not  merely  psychology  and 
physiology,  but  anthropology,  history,  logic,  rhetoric, 
literature,  sociology,  every  science  or  branch  of 
knowledge  v/hich  throws  light  upon  man  in  any 
of  his  relations,  stages  of  development,  or  activities, - 
is  drawn  upon  for  its  contribution  to  the  science  of 
pedagogy.  Nothing  which  concerns  man  is  foreign 
to  this  science.     A  careful  reading  of  books  which 


336  STUDIES  m  pedagogy. 

treat  of  these  various  subjects,  a  critical  observation 
of  men  in  the  ordinary  walks  of  life,  a  perusal  of 
the  daily  papers,  a  careful  study  of  the  children 
under  your  care  in  their  ordinary  work  and  in 
their  play,  noting  their  methods,  scrutinizing  their 
motives,  and  withal  a  searching  analysis  of  the 
workings  of  your  own  minds  and  the  action  of  your 
own  wills,  will  furnish  an  ever-increasing  store  of 
fresh  and  interesting  facts  that  must  find  a  place 
in  any  comprehensive  scheme  of  education  that 
seeks  to  make  the  most  of  each  human  soul  whose 
destiny  is  committed  to  your  care.  These  facts  are 
to  be  sifted,  analyzed,  compared,  and  from  them,  by 
a  painstaking  induction,  you  are  to  reach  your  own 
conclusions.  Facts  you  may  gain  from  others,  the 
philosophy  must  be  your  own.  This  is  no  easy 
matter.  It  cannot  be  done  without  labor,  and  it 
requires  time.  I  believe  that  you  are  prepared  to 
do  this  kind  of  work,  and  we  shall  be  disappointed 
when  you  return  to  us  year  by  year,  if  we  do  not 
find  you  still  enthusiastic  students  of  that  science 
which  Rosenkranz  has  taught  you  to  love. 

Again,  we  expect  you  to  be  progressive.  Our 
work  has  been  that  of  seed-sowing.  You  have 
taken  into  willing  and  receptive  minds  great  germi- 
nal truths,  which  are  to  grow  and  bear  rich  fruitage. 
At  first  your  work  will  not  satisfy  you ;  it  will  fall 
far  short  of  your  ideals ;  often  it  will  bitterly  disappoint 
you.  The  principles  you  have  learned  will  not  seem 
to  apply,  your  methods  will  not  work,  children  will 
not   conform   to   your   notions   of  psychology,  your 


THE    TEACHER'S   GROWTH.  337 

apparatus  will  not  seem  to  fit,  and  you  will  be  in 
despair.  Let  me  say  for  your  encouragement  that 
the  most  hopeless  cases  we  send  out  are  those  who 
do  their  best  work  in  their  first  school.  Imitators 
may  do  well  at  the  start,  but  they  never  do  any 
better.  Those  who  do  independent  work,  who 
elaborate  their  own  methods,  who  work  not  by  rule 
but  according  to  principle,  learning  from  their  fail- 
ures, adapting  their  work  to  the  conditions  of  their 
schools  and  the  idiosyncrasies  of  their  pupils,  who 
test  everything  by  experience,  verify  all  their  hypoth- 
eses and  modify  their  philosophy  to  conform  to  facts 
as  they  find  them,  those  who  blend  profound  phi- 
losophy with  practical  good  sense,  —  these  grow,  and 
become  better  teachers  with  each  succeeding  year. 
Solid  reputation  is  of  slow  growth,  and  if  in  ten 
years  you  establish  a  reputation  as  successful 
teachers,  we  shall  be  entirely  satisfied.  Read  and 
reflect,  study  books  and  minds,  let  your  philosophy 
be  practical,  and  your  practice  philosophical.  Inves- 
tigate with  the  humility  of  those  who  think  that  they 
know  nothing,  opening  your  ears  to  hear  all  voices. 
But  execute  your  matured  plans  with  the  confidence 
of  those  who,  feeling  no  misgivings  of  their  philos- 
ophy, have  confidence  in  themselves  and  faith  in 
human  nature.  In  your  studies  be  teachable  as 
children ;  in  your  work  be  fearless  as  warriors. 
Thus  will  you  grow  in  knowledge,  wisdom,  and 
skill.  Those  whom  you  teach  will  feel  the  quicken- 
ing influence  of  your  presence,  catch  your  enthu- 
siasm   for    truth,    imitate    your   methods   of    work, 


338  S  TUDIES  IX  FED  A  GOGY. 

imbibe  your  philosophy  of  life,  and  take  on  the 
stamp  of  your  character.  Your  services  will  be  in 
demand,  your  labors  rewarded,  your  own  self-respect 
satisfied,  and  your  teachers,  tithing  your  success, 
will  grow  rich  in  honors  and  find  the  reward  of 
their  labors. 


TRAINING   FOR    CITIZENSHIP. 

When  you  enter  upon  your  work  as  teachers  you 
become  state  ofificials.  You  have  been  educated  by 
the  vState  at  public  expense  in  order  that  you  may 
be  qualified  to  assist  in  training  the  youth  of  the 
State  for  the  duties  of  citizenship.  In  addition  to 
teaching  the  common  branches  of  learning,  you  are 
to  take  special  pains  to  inculcate  those  fundamental 
conceptions  of  civic  virtue  that  will  fit  your  pupils 
to  become  useful  members  of  the  State, 

What  is  civic  virtue .''  What  is  it  to  be  a  good 
citizen }  What  ideal  will  you  hold  before  your 
pupils  .^     Let  me  help  you  to  answer. 

1.  In  the  first  place,  the  good  citizen  is  he  who  by 
his  intelligence  and  thrift  is  able  not  only  to  maintain 
himself,  but  also  to  add  something  to  the  general 
prosperity.  There  should  be  no  drones  in  society. 
All  should  in  some  way  be  producers.  You  are  to 
inculcate  in  the  minds  of  your  pupils  the  idea  that 
nothing  but  inability  exonerates  any  citizen  from 
honest  labor,  either  with  hand  or  brain. 

2.  In  the  next  place,  good  citizenship  requires 
that  every  member  of  the  community  should   labor 


TRAINING    FOR    CITIZENSHIP.  339 

for  the  common  good.  We  are  all  children  of  one 
father,  joint  heirs  of  the  heritage  of  nature,  —  "  earth, 
air,  fire,  and  water,"  —  and  so  intimately  associated  as 
to  be  mutually  dependent  upon  each  other.  The 
State  is  the  mother  of  us  all  and  has  a  claim  upon 
our  service.  The  State  makes  wealth  possible,  and 
gives  to  life  some  of  its  greatest  attractions.  It  has 
a  right  to  claim  from  the  citizen  that  he  shall  not 
simply  pay  his  taxes  and  perform  forced  service,  but 
that  he  shall  regard  it  a  privilege  to  give  freely  and 
voluntarily  of  his  means  for  public  improvements, 
highways,  buildings,  parks,  lib-raries,  and  educational 
and  charitable  institution.s.  He  is  a  child  of  the 
State,  and  should  exhibit  a  filial  regard  for  her 
welfare,  honor,  adornment,  and  progress.  That 
State  is  poor  indeed  where  public  spirit  is  lacking. 

3.  Again,  in  a  republic  which  is  a  "government 
of  the  people,  for  the  people,  and  by  the  people,"  it 
is  incumbent  upon  every  citizen  to  take  an  active, 
intelligent,  honest  part  in  political  matters.  To  vote 
is  not  a  privilege,  a  lu::ury,  but  a  duty.  Liberty  is 
a  responsibility.  Every  public  school  maintained  by 
the  State  for  the  sake  of  the  State  should  teach 
every  boy  to  regard  the  ballot  as  a  sacred  trust  which 
is  to  be  used  not  for  private  gain,  but  for  the  public 
weal.  The  man  who  sells  his  vote  bargains  away  his 
manhood.  And  he  who  corrupts  the  franchise  by 
bribery,  intimidation,  or  other  means  is  a  public 
enemy.  To  vote  is  a  duty ;  to  vote  wrong  may  be  a 
blunder  ;  to  refuse  to  vote  at  all  is  a  crime. 

4.  Another    cardinal    element    of    civic    virtue    is 


340  STUDIES  IN-  PEDAGOGY. 

obedience  to  law.  The  sovereignty  of  the  people  is 
expressed  in  laws.  To  violate  law  is  to  array  one's 
self  against  the  majesty  of  the  State.  It  is  to  be 
disloyal.  It  matters  not  what  the  law  is,  whether  it 
commends  itself  to  our  judgment  as  wise  and  whole- 
some or  not.  So  long  as  it  stands  on  the  statute 
books  it  should  be  obeyed.  If  we  set  it  at  defiance 
we  ally  ourselves  with  the  criminal  class  as  the 
enemies  of  order  and  government,  and  we  give  our 
sanction  to  violence  and  crime  of  every  kind.  We 
thus  strike  a  blow  at  the  foundations  of  society.  The 
loss  of  respect  for  the  throne  was  a  precursor  and  a 
cause  of  the  French  Revolution.  The  loss  of  respect 
for  law  in  our  Republic  will  hasten  the  overthrow  of 
our  liberty.  The  bulwark  of  our  liberties  is  in  the 
loyalty  of  our  citizens.  The  State  looks  to  you  to 
inculcate  in  the  minds  of  its  youth  the  loftiest 
conceptions  of  the  majesty  of  law,  and  the  most 
ardent  devotion  to  its  service  by  ready,  constant, 
intelligent  obedience  to  its  commands. 

I  charge  you  to  ponder  well  this  subject  of 
American  citizenship  :  reflect  on  the  nature  of  the 
great  experiment  of  freedom  that  is  being  tried  on 
so  vast  a  scale  on  this  continent ;  think  what  issues 
for  humanity  hang  on  the  result ;  consider  the  perils 
that  threaten  it,  and  remember  how  great  a  privilege 
it  is  to  be  allowed  to  take  an  active  part,  however 
humble,  in  training  multitudes  of  boys  and  girls  for 
citizenship.  The  Republic  is  safe  if  the  school- 
teachers fearlessly  and  intelligently  do  their  whole 
duty.     See  that  you  do  your  part  in  sending  out  from 


A  PROFESSIONAL   SPIRIT.  34 1 

your  schools  those  who  will  enter  life's  active  duties 
with  the  loftiest  motives  of  patriotism,  public  spirit, 
and  devotion  to  duty. 


A    PROFESSIONAL    SPIRIT. 

You  will  illustrate  your  own  motto,  "  Unity  in 
diversity,"  for  while  each  one  of  you  has  your  own 
distinct  individuality  always  asserting  itself,  you  are 
nevertheless  one  in  aim,  in  spirit,  and  in  work.  Not 
the  least  feature  of  our  interest  in  you  has  been  in 
watching  the  play  of  these  two  seemingly  antag- 
onistic forces,  selfhood  and  comradeship.  They  are 
not  really  antagonistic,  but  are  complementary. 
Each  needs  the  other.  Each  one  of  you  has  been 
benefited  by  the  attrition  of  mind,  the  recognition 
of  rights,  the  surrender  of  claims,  the  subordination 
of  the  individual  to  the  common  good,  demanded  by 
the  exigencies  of  class  association.  How  greatly 
you  have  been  benefited  you  cannot  now  know,  but 
in  future  years,  when  the  varied  experiences  of  life 
have  given  you  a  profoundcr  consciousness  of  self 
and  a  broader  philosophy  of  education,  you  will 
realize  what  the  class  has  done  for  you.  We  are 
sorry  to  see  this  relationship,  fraught  with  so  much 
good,  suddenly  and  forever  largely  broken  up. 

And  yet  we  remember  that  the  day  which  dis- 
solves this  class  relationship  substitutes  for  it  the 
fellowship  of  teachers.  We  rejoice  to  welcome  you 
to-day  into  the  ancient  and  honorable  guild  of  school- 
masters.    Let  me  earnestly  advise  that    henceforth 


342  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

you  cultivate  and  exemplify  in  its  highest  form  the 
professional  spirit.  Be  teachers  in  fact,  and  not 
merely  in  name.  In  all  the  range  of  human  activity 
there  is  no  work  more  dignified  than  that  done  by 
the  teacher.  To  be  in  any  degree  instrumental  in 
the  formation  of  exalted  characters,  awakening  a 
love  of  truth,  quickening  the  conscience,  developing 
the  will,  fixing  firmly  in  your  minds  a  high  ideal  of 
life  and  setting  young  feet  in  paths  of  rectitude, 
stimulating  the  noblest  desires  of  which  the  human 
heart  is  capable,  indicating  honorable  ways  of  grat- 
ifying those  desires,  pointing  out  to  the  innocent 
and  inexperienced  the  dangers  and  pitfalls  of  life, 
and  in  implanting  such  principles  of  conduct  as 
will  enable  them  to  go  on  their  perilous  way  in 
security  and  confidence,  awakening  in  all  a  tender 
heart  of  pity  for  the  lowly  and  unfortunate,  and 
suggesting  ways  and  means  of  alleviating  the  sorrow 
and  affliction  of  their  fellows  is  a  part  of  the  high 
and  holy  calling  of  the  teacher.  Magnify  your 
office. 

Cherish  the  highest  ideals  for  your  own  personal 
careers.  Let  every  success  but  stimulate  you  to 
still  greater  efforts.  Remember  that  you  can  never 
do  so  well  that  there  will  not  remain  the  possibility 
of  doing  better.  No  human  teacher  has  ever 
attained  perfection.  To  train  one's  mind  for  its 
lifework  is  a  task  of  supreme  difficulty,  and  no  one 
ever  attempted  it  without  the  painful  consciousness 
of  partial  failure.  Perhaps  the  surest  signs  of 
growth  in  your  ability  to  work  will  be  the  pangs  of 


CHARACTER  BUILDING. 


343 


disappointment  at  your  failures.  Welcome  criticism 
as  pointing  to  unattained  excellence,  distrust  praise 
as  tending  to  deaden  your  efforts  :  read  the  most 
difficult  books,  study  the  highest  models,  subject 
your  best  efforts  to  the  most  rigid  scrutiny,  and  do 
not  be  disappointed  if  your  ideals  always  elude  you. 
The  caterpillar  is  content  to  crawl  upon  the  ground 
because  it  has  no  experience  of  anything  better ; 
the  eagle  rests  upon  one  mountain-top  only  to  renew 
its  strength  and  prepare  for  higher  flights. 

In  such  work  as  yours  there  can  be  no  absolute 
failure.  Every  honest  effort  will  be  fruitful  of  good, 
for  you  teach  by  example,  and  honest  effort  is  itself 
contagious  and  helpful.  Every  impulse  toward  a 
better  life  will  go  on  doing  its  work  forever.  One 
single  lesson  may  arouse  energies  otherwise  dormant 
that  will  accomplish  marvelous  things  in  the  destiny 
of  the  individual.  The  child  of  poverty  and  obscur- 
ity that  sits  a  humble  learner  at  your  feet  may  one 
day  rule  the  nation.  The  destiny  of  the  Republic 
of  the  future  is  in  the  hands  of  the  school-teachers. 
You  are  sure  of  your  reward.  Each  day's  toil  is 
registered  in  character,  engraven  in  memory,  and 
in  numerous  ways  will  enrich  and  bless  you. 


CHARACTER    BUILDING. 

Bear  in  mind  that  the  chief  work  of  the  school- 
teacher is  that  of  character  building.  The  pupils 
committed  to  you  are  not  so  many  pitchers  to  be 
filled   with    learning :  they  are    moral    beings  to    be 


344  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

trained  for  life's  duties.  The  knowledge  which  you 
impart  to  them  is  valuable  chiefly  as  an  instrument 
in  developing  their  intellectual  and  moral  power. 
It  is  of  much  less  consequence  to  them  and  to  the 
world  what  they  learn,  than  it  is  what  they  become. 
They  are  entrusted  to  you  not  so  much  that  they 
may  be  taught  as  that  they  may  be  trained.  In  after- 
life they  will  make  very  little  use  of  the  particular 
facts  which  they  learn  from  you,  but  they  will  be 
called  upon  every  day  that  they  live  to  make  con- 
stant use  of  the  mental  powers  that  have  been 
developed  through  your  agency.  Their  ability  to 
discharge  the  duties  that  may  devolve  upon  them 
in  the  various  positions  that  they  may  be  called 
upon  to  fill  will  depend  far  less  upon  their  knowl- 
edge than  upon  their  character.  Their  own  personal 
well-being,  their  enjoyment  of  the  blessings  of  life, 
their  appreciation  of  the  possibilities  of  living,  their 
power  to  resist  temptation,  ability  to  cope  with  evil, 
susceptibility  to  influences  for  good,  will  result  not 
so  much  from  their  knowledge  as  from  their  moral 
discipline. 

Every  intelligent  observer  of  human  nature  knows 
that  society  suffers  more  to-day  from  rascality  than 
from  ignorance.  Defalcations  in  business,  infidelity 
to  trusts,  violations  of  law,  disturbances  of  the 
public  peace,  invasions  of  the  sanctity  of  the  family, 
are  not  faults  of  ignorance,  but  are  vices.  The 
widespread  and  fearful  corruption  of  the  ballot  is 
not  due  to  the  iUiteracy  of  those  who  sell  their  votes, 
but   to    the    cunning   knavery  of   unprincipled  men 


CHARACTER  BUILDING.  345 

who  use  their  knowledge  for  base  purposes.  The 
State  has  far  more  to  fear  from  the  man  without 
honesty  than  from  the  man  without  learning.  Igno- 
rance is  pitiful,  knavery  is  destructive.  Preparation 
for  citizenship,  which  is  the  chief  end  for  which  the 
State  maintains  schools,  is  to  be  accomplished  by 
the  inculcation  of  right  principles  of  action,  the 
awakening  of  lofty  desires,  and  the  developing  of 
correct  habits. 

The  very  idea  of  education  involves  the  formation 
of  character.  To  educate  is  to  develop  ;  to  call  into 
action  latent  powers  ;  to  kindle  emotions  ;  to  form 
habits.  The  child  cannot  be  educated  without  being 
led  to  discriminate  truth  from  error,  and  good  from 
evil.  From  the  very  nature  of  the  case  the  teacher 
must  make  constant  appeals  to  motives  ;  must  excite 
the  conscience  and  move  the  will.  If  in  the  daily 
work  of  the  schoolroom  the  child  is  taught  to  love 
truth,  to  govern  his  actions  by  reason  and  conscience, 
his  thoughts,  desires,  and  actions  will  tend  to  the 
formation  of  an  upright  character. 

The  discipline  of  the  school,  which  aims  primarily 
at  securing  good  order,  quiet,  studiousness,  fidelity, 
regularity,  obedience,  and  other  results  without 
which  the  true  ends  of  the  school  cannot  be  reached, 
is  founded  upon  justice,  makes  use  of  moral  means 
for  the  accomplishment  of  its  ends,  appeals  con- 
stantly to  the  conscience  and  the  reason  of  the 
pupil,  and  must  result  to  a  certain  degree  in  the 
formation  of  character. 

It  is  not  so  much  the  teacher's  duty  to  form  right 


346  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

characters  as  it  is  his  exalted  privilege.  The  knowl- 
edge you  impart  may  be  forgotten,  but  the  characters 
you  form  are  largely  indestructible.  The  work 
which  surpasses  all  others  in  this  world  in  intrinsic 
dignity,  in  its  permanency,  in  its  wide-reaching 
influence,  in  the  rich  results  that  flow  out  of  it,  is 
that  of  character  building.  You  can  aspire  to 
nothing    higher,  you  can    attempt    nothing   greater. 

The  thought  of  this  great  privilege  will  of  neces- 
sity condition  all  your  work.  In  giving  instruction 
your  aim  will  be  not  so  much  to  lodge  facts  in  the 
memory  as  to  lead  your  pupils  to  assimilate  the 
truth  imparted,  and  to  form  right  intellectual  habits. 
In  appealing  to  motives  to  induce  them  to  perform 
the  allotted  daily  tasks  you  will  look  beyond  the  mere 
performance  of  a  school  duty,  and  will  endeavor 
to  touch  those  mainsprings  of  action  which  will  fit 
them  for  the  performance  of  the  more  important 
duties  of  life.  Your  entire  system  of  discipline, 
while  it  aims  at  immediate  results,  will  include  in 
its  scope  the  formation  of  life  habits.  The  children 
whom  you  train  in  your  little  world,  and  who  are 
occupied  to-day  with  childish  pursuits,  will  at  no 
distant  day  be  the  men  and  the  women  who  will 
bear  upon  their  shoulders  the  burdens  of  society 
and  be  engaged  in  fighting  the  battles  of  humanity. 
Men  are  but  children  of  a  larger  growth.  The 
characters  fashioned  in  your  schoolrooms  will  largely 
shape  their  destinies  and  fit  or  unfit  them  for  careers 
of  usefulness. 

You  have  special   facilities  as  teachers  for  doing 


CHARACTER  BUILDING.  347 

this  great  work.  The  school  is  a  miniature  world 
and  tends  to  call  into  exercise,  on  a  narrow  field, 
all  the  motives  that  influence  men  on  the  larger 
field  of  life's  activities.  The  growth  of  character 
which  goes  on  during  school  life,  whether  you  will 
it  or  not,  takes  place  under  your  eyes  and  is  very 
largely  subject  to  your  direction.  The  influences 
that  are  so  powerful  in  molding  character  are 
largely  subject  to  your  control.  It  rests  with  you 
what  motives  to  call  into  action,  what  ideals  shall 
be  presented  for  imitation,  and  what  habits  shall  be 
formed,  for  you  are  to  be  masters.  Not  even  to 
their  parents  do  children  yield  themselves  to  be 
guided  in  their  conduct  more  absolutely  than  to 
their  teachers.  To  many  a  school  boy  and  girl  the 
teacher  is  more  a  model  of  imitation  and  an  authority 
to  be  obeyed  than  is  father  or  mother. 

The  chief  factor  in  this  great  work  of  character 
building  is  your  own  personality.  The  fountain 
does  not  rise  higher  than  its  source.  What  you  say 
will  be  conditioned  all  the  while  by  what  you  are. 
The  children  with  whom  you  deal,  whose  characters 
you  attempt  to  fashion,  are  keen  observers  of  human 
nature,  and  should  your  own  character  not  corre- 
spond with  your  precepts,  they  will  be  quick  to 
discern  it.  They  are  quicker  to  imitate  example 
than  to  obey  rules.  The  best  way,  therefore,  for 
you  to  lead  your  pupils  to  the  formation  of  high 
and  noble  characters  is  for  you  to  exhibit  such  a 
character  before  them  in  all  your  dealings  with  them. 
If   you  yourselves  are  enthusiastic  lovers  of  truth, 


348  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

ardent  admirers  of  the  beautiful,  conscientious  in 
the  discharge  of  duty,  considerate  of  the  rights  of 
others,  and  if  you  seek  to  regulate  your  thoughts, 
words,  and  actions  by  the  highest  considerations  of 
duty,  your  influence  upon  those  whom  you  teach 
will  be  in  the  highest  degree  uplifting.  Such  as  you 
are  they  will  strive  to  become. 


A   PLEA   FOR   THE   PUBLIC   SCHOOLS. 

You  have  been  educated  in  the  public  schools,  and 
the  public  has  the  right  to  expect  that  you  will  ever 
have  a  good  word  to  say  for  them.  In  behalf  of  the 
free  public  schools  of  America  it  may  be  urged :  — 

1.  They  are  the  poor  man's  friend.  They  bring  to 
the  cottage  life's  greatest  treasures,  knowledge  and 
wisdom.  The  mass  of  people  are  and  ever  have  been 
poor.  Life  for  them  is  a  struggle.  Education  is  a 
boon  because  it  puts  the  poor  man's  son  into  posses- 
sion of  power.  It  lifts  him  from  the  low  plane  of 
ignorant  animalism,  develops  his  reason,  and  enables 
him  to  begin  life  more  nearly  upon  terms  of  equality 
with  the  rich  man's  son.     Education  levels  up. 

2.  They  are  the  rich  man's  opportunity.  One  of 
the  greatest  privileges  of  wealth  is  the  opportunity 
to  help  the  poor.  "  It  is  more  blessed  to  give  than 
to  receive.  "  The  best  gift  possible  to  an  earnest, 
ambitious  girl  or  boy  is  an  education  whereby  he 
may  help  himself.  The  surest  preventive  of  the 
evils  of  poverty  is  a  practical  education  that  renders 


A   PLEA   FOR    THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS.         349 

an  individual  independent  and  self-reliant.  It  is 
better  to  build  schoolhouses  than  almshouses.  There 
is  no  better  scheme  for  utilizing  wealth  and  of 
giving  it  the  widest  possible  distribution  than  the 
public-school  system.  The  socialism  of  culture  is 
the  panacea  for  nihilism  and  anarchy. 

3.  They  are  the  safeguards  of  liberty.  A  free 
people  must  be  an  intelligent  people.  Ignorance 
and  freedom  are  incompatible.  "  A  government  of 
the  people,  for  the  people,  and  by  the  people " 
cannot  be  maintained  long  without  universal  educa- 
tion. The  public-school  system  of  America  is  the 
best  means  ever  yet  devised  in  the  whole  course  of 
human  history  for  the  education  of  the  whole  people. 
They  are  for  all  —  not  for  the  few.  No  other  system 
ever  did  reach  the  masses,  and  no  other  ever  will. 
If  the  people  are  to  be  educated,  the  people  must 
do  it.  If  our  Republic  is  to  endure,  it  must  be  by 
the  beneficent  work  of  the  public  schools. 

4.  They  are  the  nurseries  of  a  genuine  democracy. 
They  are  the  people's  schools.  In  the  public  schools 
no  caste  is  known,  no  class  distinctions  are  recognized 
except  those  that  arise  from  merit  and  scholarship. 
In  the  school  all  meet  on  a  common  level,  rich  and 
poor,  high  and  low,  the  aristocrat  and  the  pauper. 
All  races,  creeds,  colors,  and  social  classes  enter  these 
halls  on  the  same  plane.  The  honors  are  to  the 
meritorious.  Merit  wins.  Equality  is  the  watch- 
word that  is  at  once  a  spur  to  the  rich  sluggard  and 
an  encouragement  to  the  humblest  child  of  poverty. 

5.  They   are  American.     Nothing,  perhaps,  is  so 


350  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

distinctively  a  product  of  the  soil  as  is  the  American 
school  system.  In  these  schools  all  speak  a  common 
language ;  race  distinctions  give  way  to  national 
characteristics  ;  mutual  respect  and  esteem  take  the 
place  of  class  hatred  and  suspicion  ;  old  country 
traditions  are  displaced  by  a  new  patriotism.  The 
pupils  may  enter  heterogeneous  aliens  ;  they  emerge 
homogeneous  Americans.  Individualism,  freedom, 
culture,  are  agents  of  wondrous  transforming  power. 
6.  They  are  training-schools  of  character.  Abroad 
intelligence  is  the  foundation  upon  which  they  build, 
but  intelligence  is  only  a  foundation.  The  public 
schools  foster  industry,  order,  neatness,  punctuality, 
regularity,  thoroughness,  respect  for  authority,  and 
obedience  to  law.  These  are  of  the  essentials  of 
school  life.  They  develop  a  l^ve  of  truth  for  truth's 
sake  and  insist  on  fidelity  to  trusts.  They  awaken 
self-respect,  independence  of  thought,  and  beget  the 
habit  of  regulating  the  life  in  accordance  with  reason 
and  conscience.  They  call  out  respect  for  the  rights 
of  others,  and  regard  not  only  for  the  rights  of 
property,  but  also  for  the  rights  of  conscience.  They 
awaken  love  for  the  true,  the  beautiful,  and  the  good, 
reverence  for  law,  justice,  and  God.  They  develop 
thus  robust,  manly  characters,  and  fit  their  students 
for  lives  of  honor,  happiness,  and  usefulness. 


INDEX   OF   PRINCIPAL   SUBJECTS. 


Abstraction,  67. 

Academic  work,  in  Normal  Scliools, 

306. 
Addison,  145. 
Agassiz,  139. 
Alden,  193. 
Analysis,   67 ;  of  the   subject,   185 ; 

and  synthesis,  186,  294 ;  need  of, 

187,  207. 
Ancestry,  211. 
Anderson,  5,  192,  252. 
Angelo,  194,  271. 
Anthropology,  286. 
Arisiotle,  266. 
Arithmetic,  method  of  teaching,  210, 

215 ;    should    secure    intellectual 

discipline,  217. 
Asch.im,  180. 

Athens,  194 ;  temple  of,  253. 
Athenian  instructors,  252. 
Authority,  necessity  for,  172;  blind 

submission  to  a  bygone,  177. 

Bacon,  158. 

Beard,  42. 

Berkeley,  Bishop,  268. 

Bible,  52. 

Biography,  form  of,  211. 

Books,  value  of,  as  testimony  and  as 
authority,  140;  not  a  substitute  for 
thinking.  141;  training  to  use,  157; 
of  reference,  needed  in  every 
school,  162;  sets  of,  from  library, 
163. 

Brown,  Dr.  John,  65,  313. 

Brooks,  216. 

Calvin,  114. 

Carlyle,  158,  195,  268. 

Catiline,  115. 

Champaign,   University    of,   exhibit 

at  Chicago,  73. 
Channing,  10,  268. 
Chapel,  Sistine,  195. 


Character,  330 ;  building  of,  in  Nor- 
mal School,  299;  teacher's  thief 
work,  343. 

Charlemagne,  317. 

Citizenship,  329 ;  training  for,  338. 

Classifying,  70,  207. 

Classical  study,  wrong  method  of, 
202. 

Coleridge,  252,  268. 

Colleges,  283. 

Color,  43.  45.  99. 

Cologne,  Cathedral  of,  39,  270. 

Columbus,  115. 

Comcnius,  42,  137,  317. 

Comparison,  64.  68,  207. 

Compayre,  5,  78,  180,  200. 

Conscience.  17,  350. 

Curiosity,  great  value  of,  132 ;  dif- 
ference in,  133,  201;  lack  of,  202, 
203. 

Currie,  78, 145. 

Darling.  312. 

De\vey,  112. 

Definition.  207, 

De  Graff,  216. 

De  Garmo,  278. 

Demosthenes,  195, 

Description,  207. 

Development  of   faculties,   limited, 

17- 
Dictionary,  96, 102. 
Didactics,  292,  293. 
Dickens,  312. 

Difficulties,  significance  of,  319. 
Drawing,  46,  72,  208. 

Economy,  school,  295. 

Edgeworth,  216. 

Educaiion,    definitions    of,    10,    II, 

27,    28;    implies   knowledge,    12; 

menial  power,  14;  sensiljhity  and 

conscience,  17;    a   firm    will.    18; 

does    not    create,    16;     consists 


352 


STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 


often  in  telling,  20;  common  view 
of,  33 ;  a  lilelong  process,  128  ; 
should  lead  to  independent  in- 
quiry, 212;  should  be  many-sided, 
245 ;  a  compiiex  process,  284 ; 
agencies  of,  284;  philosophy  of, 
290;  history  of,  291;  the  new, 
316 ;  old  as  the  human  race,  317  ; 
practical  lower  than  liberal,  12 ; 
nature  of,  13;  self-,  127. 

Emerson,  158. 

Enjoyment,  varies  greatly,  17. 

Erasmus,  196. 

Ethics,  a  recitation  in,  26 ;  study  of, 
288. 

Ethnology,  289. 

Examinations,  72,  103,  239 ;  pur- 
poses of,  241 ;  how  conducted, 
247. 

Exercise,  a  condition  of  develop- 
ment, 290 ;  fundamental  law,  292. 

Facts,  value  of,  263. 

Faculties,  first  formed,  42 ;  order  of 
development  of,  292. 

Family,  the,  280. 

Feelings,  capacity  for,  82 ;  analysis 
of,  82 ;  index  of  the  soul,  83 ; 
importance  of,  84,  85 ;  issue  in 
action,  84 ;  can  be  evoked,  87 ; 
tend  to  persist,  88;  opportune 
moments  for  awakening,  88  ;  sub- 
ject to  law,  91 ;  how  to  train,  92. 

Fitch,  278. 

Fleming,  52. 

Freiburg,  the  great  organ  of,  79. 

Fractions,  based  upon  division,  219  ; 
decimal,  how  taught,  219. 

Freedom,  the  goal  of  culture,  122; 
of  child  to  be  respected,  131 ; 
kindled  by  freedom,  168  ;  training 
for,  169;  modifies  our  institu- 
tions, 171 ;  man's  normal  state, 
174. 

Froebel,  112,  217,  317. 

Fuller,  252. 

Geography,  56;  furnishes  material 
for  language  lessons,  100 ;  law  of 
activity  in,  141. 

Generalization,  70. 

Geometry,  method  of  study  of,  23, 
24 ;  law  of  activity  in,  141. 

Gladstone,  320. 

Goethe,  112,  i8o. 

Goldsmith,  252. 


!    Gove,  240. 

Grant,  General,  120,  303,  330. 

Grammar,  a  finishing  instrument, 
96 ;  technical,  102 ;  learned  by 
practice,  108 ;  to  be  thoroughly 
studied,  108;  should  follow  lan- 
guage, 137. 

Grube,  218. 

Hailman,  168. 

Hale,  31. 

Hamilton,  20,  64,  68. 

Hancock,  192. 

Harris,  Dr.,  168. 

Harris,  W.  T.,  5, 112, 126,  180,  278. 

Harrison,  159. 

Helps,  Arthur,  20. 

Herschel,  158. 

Humor,  value  of,  258. 

Hutten,  Ulrich  von,  196. 

Ideas,  how  awakened,  28 ;  elements 
of  knowledge,  29;  "  mother 
ideas,"  136. 

Ideals,  power  of,  62;   nature  of,  253, 

254- 

Imagination,  function  of,  31;  de- 
fined, 53 ;  training  of,  53 ;  relation 
to  art,  54 ;  to  worship,  55 ;  is  the 
soul,  56;  handmaid  of  all  the 
faculties,  56 ;  how  trained,  57;  a 
creative  power,  59 ;  regulated  by 
reason,  60;  creates  ideals,  62. 

Independence,  318. 

Incentive  to  study,  examinations  an, 
241. 

Induction,  70. 

Indians,  when  educated,  13 ;  at  Car- 
lisle, 153. 

Instruction,  how  carried  on,  32. 

Intellectualism  dry,  tendency 
towards,  90. 

Jacotot,  favorite  theory  of,  142. 
Johnson,  Dr.,  268. 
Judgment,  training  of,  64 ;  defined, 
69. 

Kant,  42. 

Kindergarten,  trains  sensibilities, 03; 
games  of,  135 ;  law  of  activi- 
ty in,  141. 

Knowledge,  implied  in  education, 
12;  either  means  or  end,  12;  how 
acquired,  22 ;  has  practical  value, 


INDEX. 


353 


24 ;  contact  with  things,  28 ;  ele- 
ments of,  29;  of  material  things, 
begins  in  sense  perceptions,  30; 
relation  to  power,  34 ;  foundation 
of,  42;  of  material  things,  43;  of 
extension,  68;  should  awaken 
emotion,  89;  desire  for,  in  child- 
hood, 89;  not  all  of  education, 
90;  at  first  hand,  137;  sources 
of,  few,  139;  not  all  through  the 
senses,  209. 

Lalor,  252. 

Landon,  definition  of  education, 
27,  28,  52. 

Language,  power  of,  25 ;  should 
accompany  sense  training,  49; 
training  in,  97;  relation  to 
thought,  97 ;  and  to  business,  97  ; 
necessary  to  progress,  98 ; 
method  of  teaching,  98 ;  object- 
lessons,  99;  description,  100; 
compositions,  100,  104,  243 ; 
spelling,  100;  reading,  101;  letter- 
writing,  loi ;  grammar,  96,  102; 
dictionary,  102;  rhetoric,  102; 
literature,  103  ;  the  classics,  104  ; 
Latin,  106 ;  pupil  should  learn  his 
own,  96. 

Laurie,  278. 

Learning,  intuitive.  136;  source  of 
joy,  136 ;  indifference  to,  138. 

Learn,  training  to,  127;  chief  func- 
tion of  the  teacher's  ofhce,  128 ; 
first  condition  of,  130;  second, 
132;  third,  134;  fourth,  136; 
fifth,  138  ;  sixth,  140. 

Leonardo,  271. 

Lessing,  64. 

Lincoln,  16,320. 

Libraries,  number  of,  in  the  United 
States,  159;  relations  to  public 
schools,  159;  how  to  be  made 
useful,  160 ;  books  from,  163 ; 
Providence  and  Worcester,  163 ; 
department  of  pedagogy,  165. 

Literature,  influence  of,  loi,  103. 

Littlefield,  241. 

Locke,  96,  180,  268,  317. 

Logic,  288. 

Lombard,  Peter,  205. 

Longfellow,  145. 

Lord  Mayor,  192. 

Love,  252. 

Luther,  147,300. 

Mac  Donald,  5a. 


Manhood,  complete,  sought  by  edu- 
cation, 18. 

Mann,  Horace,  20, 

Marcel,  96. 

Memory,  not  learning,  30,  129;  im- 
portance of,  203 ;  pernicious 
habit  of,  228  ;  memoriter  recitation, 
32,  203. 

Men,  differ  widely,  17. 

Method,  of  training  the  senses,  44 ; 
the  smell,  50;  the  imagination,  57; 
to  think,  67;  of  industrial  train- 
ing. 73  ;  of  training  the  sensibili- 
ties, 92;  of  teaching  Latin,  106; 
of  training  the  will,  117;  of 
causing  to  learn,  130;  the  man 
and  his,  193;  machine,  192;  is 
applied  philosophy,  195  ;  no  "  The 
method,"  196;  in  questioning, 
199;  of  teaching  arithmetic,  215; 
of  Socrates,  200;  relation  of 
logic  to,  289. 

Methodology,  181 ;  distinguished 
from  methods,  183;  preceded  by 
logic,  184 ;  treats  of  division, 
185 ;  arrangement,  186 ;  oral 
teaching,  189;  of  reviews,  exami- 
nations, etc.,  189;  of  educational 
values,  189;  value  of  the  study 
of,  190,  293. 

Metric  System,  how  taught,  221. 

Milan,  Cathedral  of,  274. 

Milton,  78. 

Milne,  216. 

Moral  training,  10,  18,  26,  27,  28,  35, 
38,  74,  86,  88,  94,  112,  115,  119, 
121,  131,  143,  150,     177,   314,  329, 

332,  333. 334. 339.  343.  350. 

Montaigne,  20, 129. 

Morell,  168. 

More,  Hannah,  312. 

Mowry,  5. 

Music,  should  be  taught  scientifi- 
cally,   147;    training  in,   147;   an 

■  aid  in  government,  148;  a  means 
of  physical  training,  148; 
sweetens  home  life,  149;  use  of 
in  worship,  150;  in  GcrmLiny,  150; 
part  of  a  complete  education, 
153;  should  be  taught  in  child- 
hood, 155 ,  a  culture  study,  156. 

Nature,  an   educational   force,   11; 

face-to-face  coniact  with,  204. 
Nicole,  20. 
Normal  School,   teaching   in,  142; 


354 


STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 


true  function  of,  277  ;  a  profession- 
al school,  286;  course  of  study  in, 
268  ;  a  place  for  character  build- 
ing, 299;  should  be  a  model 
school,  299;  value  of,  301;  aca- 
demic work  in,  306;  changes  in, 

307- 
Number,  lessons  should  be  language 
lessons,  99 ;  method  of  teaching, 
217 ;    philosophy   of,    taught     by 
questions,  209. 

Obedience,  inculcated,  172. 
Object-lessons,  use   of,  44;    lead  to 

study  of  nature,  46. 
Observation,    207,     208,      209;      in 

number,  219. 

Palmer,  201. 

Parthenon,  253,  254,  255. 

Payne,  Joseph,  5,  126,  192. 

Payne,  W.  H.,  6. 

Peaslee,  96. 

Pedagogy,  265  ;  foundation  of,  266 ; 

elements  of,  290. 
Percentage,  how  taught,  224;  unity 

of  all  the  processes  of,  228. 
Pessimist,  a,  unfit  for  school-teacher, 

259- 
Pestalozzi,    78,    136,    137;     method 

of,  195,  312,  317. 
Philosophy,  cannot   be  taught,  213 ; 

of  questioning,  214. 
Physiology,  286. 
Plato,  5,  78,  14s,  169,  317. 
Porter,  64,  112. 
Principles,     illustrated     by     simple 

examples,  219. 
Processes,  taught  before  principles, 

220. 
Professional  study,  286;  spirit,  341. 
Prophets,  schools  of,  317. 
"  Protest,"  192. 
Psychology,  287. 

Questioning,  method  in,  199;  Soc- 
rates' use  of,  200;  importance  of, 
201 ;  purpose  of,  204,  214 ;  cate- 
gories, 205;  adapted  to  age  and 
ability,  248. 

Quintilian,  134,317. 

Ranier,  Mount,  21. 
Reasoning  powers,  31. 
Reduction,  how  taught,  210. 


Reynolds,  Sir  Joshua,  268. 
Robinson,  5. 

Rosenkranz,  10,  113,  209. 
Rousseau,  6,  42,  137. 

Schools,  criticism  of,  34;  trade,  72; 
supervision  of,  73;  dry  intellect- 
ualisni  of,  90;  religious  tone  of, 
94;  equalize  life's  blessings,  151; 
milder  discipline  of,  169 ;  prepare 
for  citizenship  172,  326,  338; 
may  be  self-governed,  179 ;  ne- 
cessity for,  280,  348 ;  should  do 
practical  work,  281;  secondary, 
282 ;  technical.  284 ;  practice, 
297 ;  public,  a  plea  for,  348. 

Schoolmaster,  the  ideal,  251 ;  day- 
dream of,  261. 

Sciences,  20. 

Selden,  97, 

Self-activity,  20. 

Senses,  the  training  of,  43  ;  need  of 
early  training,  44 ;  purpose  of, 
45 ;  is  mind  training,  45;  distin- 
guished from  skill,  46. 

Sensibilities,  training  of,  79;  analy- 
sis of,  82. 

Smell,  sense  of,  slighted,  47;  proper 
rank  and  function  of,  47,  48  ;  how 
trained,  49. 

Socrates,  method  of,  142,  194,  200; 
master  of  questioning,  205. 

Soul,  has  possibilities,  14;  put  into 
relationship  with  the  universe,  14; 
a  plan  for,  40;  a  unit,  80;  feels 
limitations  of  matter,  256. 

Spencer,  126,  168. 

Square  root,  how  taught,  220. 

State,  influence  of,  260. 

Stockwell,  279. 

Sully,  21,  43,  48.  64. 

Supervision,  need  of,  246. 

Talent,  sought  for,  259. 

Tarbell,  240. 

Teacher,  the  manner  of,  11 ;  should 
have  a  heart  92  ;  should  cause  to 
learn,  128;  should  respect  child's 
individuality,  130;  should  not 
tyrannize,  131 ;  should  strive 
after  excellence  in  method,  196; 
qualities  of,  253-275 ;  public 
teachers,  number  of,  285;  all 
teachers  should  have  a  pro- 
fessional training,  302;  advice  to 
young    teachers,    311;     teacher's 


INDEX. 


355 


calling,  313;  benefactor  of  all 
classes,  314;  friend  of  the  poor, 
315;  independence  of,  318  ;  special 
work  of,  327;  personality  0^347. 

Teaching  versus  training,  25  ;  dig- 
nity of,  36,  313;  preparation  for, 
73  ;  test  of  245. 

Test,  in  Hfe,  34. 

Theological  Seminaries,  304,  307. 

Thomas,  General  George  H.,  303. 

Thinkers,  great,  few,  66. 

Thinking,  illustrated,  23,  24 ;  de- 
pendent upon  the  senses,  43  ; 
function  of  a  rational  being,  65 ; 
pleasures  of,  65  ;  complex  process, 
66;  elements  of,  67;  need  of  stan- 
dards, 68 ;  awakened  by  observa- 
tion, 71 ;  limited  by  language,  97; 
highest  outcome  of  Instruction 
181;  should  begin  early,  212; 
result  of,  213  ;  importance  of,  268 ; 
independent,  321. 

Thoroughness,  promoted  by  exami- 
nations, 242. 

Thring,  192. 

Tools,  use  of,  46;  may  be  per- 
nicious, 74. 

Truth,  search  after,  64, 


Training,  19;  defined.  22;  object 
of,  22 ;  calls  powers  into  exercise, 
25 ;  taxes  all  faculties,  25 ; 
awakens  desires,  26 ;  only  a  part 
ol  teacher's  work,  27  ;  no  instruc- 
tion without,  28 ;  prepares  for 
active  life,  33 ;  method  of,  38 ; 
industrial,  72,  73, 156.  (See  labia 
of  Contents.) 

Wayland,  10. 

Wealth,  chief  value  of,  320. 

Weights  and  measures,  how  taught, 
210,  220. 

West  Point,  303. 

Whately,  253. 

White,  E.  E.,  112,  127,  200,  240. 

Whewell,  10. 

Will,  defined,  112,  113;  training  of, 
113;  significance  of,  114;  as 
force,  114;  as  persistence,  115; 
included  in  education,  17;  exam- 
ples of,  114,  115,  116;  sin  of 
breaking  the,  122 ;  not  to  be  sub- 
dued, 139. 

Williams,  Roger,  320. 

Young,  96. 


This  book  is  DUE 


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